Economic Theology in Iraq: The Parallel Economy of Al-Kafeel

المؤلفون

  • المؤلف

  • Khalid Mutlaq

الكلمات المفتاحية:

Economic Theology، Iraq، Al-Kafeel Network، Religious Authority، Shi’i Institutional Endurance

الملخص

This study explores the rise of “economic theology” in Iraq through an examination of the Shi’i Al-Kafeel network and its expanding institutional presence. It addresses the central question of how religious authority, when disengaged from state structures, constructs a parallel economy grounded in theological legitimacy and moral purpose. The analysis, adopting a theoretical framework shaped by Max Weber, Werner Sombart, and contemporary reflections on religious economies, approaches Al-Kafeel not merely as an administrative apparatus but as a symbolic formation that converts ritual authority into organizational capacity and economic power. The study argues that Al-Kafeel exemplifies a distinctive mode of socio-economic action in post-2003 Iraq, one in which religious legitimacy, managerial rationality, and communal trust converge to produce an alternative model of institutional endurance and social influence.

المراجع

  1. The term parvenus originates in French literature, denoting individuals who have recently acquired wealth or social status but lack the traditional prestige associated with long-established elites. In the context of post-2003 Iraq, this term takes on a broader and more specific meaning. The Parvenus in Iraq are not merely nouveau riche ; they represent a new ruling class that emerged in the aftermath of the invasion, obtaining wealth, prestige, and political power simultaneously. Under the guise of sectarian religious authority, this class consolidated control, engaging in widespread looting of public funds on an unprecedented scale. Former finance ministers have stated that thirty billionaires have emerged since 2003, all from this new political elite. This figure, confirmed by another former finance minister, indicates the existence of many more who, while not billionaires, have amassed significant fortunes. As such, these individuals transcend the typical definition of nouveau riche ; their rise to power and wealth, alongside their looting of state resources, necessitates a reconfiguration of the concept. Thus, the term Parvenus is employed here with new connotations to describe this class of Iraqi elites, whose wealth and influence have developed in parallel with their political dominance and religious affiliations.
  2. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , Talcott Parsons (trans.) (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005 [1930]), pp. 51-52.
  3. Beruf is a German term used by Max Weber in his work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. It translates to “vocation” or “calling” in English and refers to the concept of a divinely ordained duty or profession. In Weber’s analysis, Beruf is central to Protestant ethics, particularly in Calvinism, where work is seen not merely as a means of earning a livelihood but as a spiritual calling through which individuals can serve God. This notion of Beruf encouraged a disciplined and methodical approach to work, aligning with the principles of capitalism by promoting hard work, frugality, and the reinvestment of profits, all seen as signs of God’s favour and evidence of one’s predestined salvation.
  4. In Calvinist theology, predestination is the doctrine that God has preordained the salvation or damnation of individuals before they are born. This belief generated anxiety among believers about their spiritual fate, which Weber suggested could be alleviated by success in one’s worldly calling, seen as a potential sign of divine favour.
  5. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Routledge), p. 79.
  6. See Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , Talcott Parsons (trans.) (New York: Scribner, 1958), esp. pp. 17-19, 47-51, where Weber explains that the moral rejection of consumption and the ethical imperative to increase one’s capital through continuous reinvestment constitute the core of the capitalist “spirit”, and that this disciplined economic asceticism played a decisive role in the emergence of modern capitalist institutions.
  7. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , Talcott Parsons (trans.) (London: Allen & Unwin, 1930), pp. 115-116, 157-158.
  8. Werner Sombart, The Jews, and Modern Capitalism , M. Epstein (trans.) (Ontario: Batoche Books, 2001), pp. 27-42.
  9. Kuan Li, “ Confucianism and Capitalist Development in the East Asian Newly Industrialised Societies ,” PhD. diss., Loughborough University, 1997, pp. 153-155.
  10. Ibid., pp. 102-104.
  11. Ibid., pp. 47-48.
  12. Jacques Gernet, Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries , Franciscus Verellen (trans.) (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
  13. Gregory K. Ornatowski, “Continuity and Change in the Economic Ethics of Buddhism: Evidence from the History of Buddhism in India, China, and Japan,” Journal of Buddhist Ethics , vol. 3 (1996), pp. 187-229. For an analysis of shifts in Buddhist ethical attitudes toward economic activity, see pp.187-228.
  14. Gernet, pp. 3-5.
  15. Ornatowski, pp. 199-203, 206-207.
  16. al-Mufid, al-Irshād fī Maʿrifat Ḥujaj Allāh ʿalā al-ʿIbād , 2 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Taʿaruf, 1981), pp. 85-87.
  17. al-Tusi, al-Nihāya fī Mujarrad al-Fiqh wa-l-Fatāwā (Beirut: Dar al-Adwa, 1988), pp. 105-107.
  18. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Ḥukūmat-i Islāmī (Iran: Maktabat al-Sadr, 1970), pp. 125-130.
  19. Murtaza Mutahhari, Islamic Principles for Government (Tehran: Tehran University Press, 1976), pp. 45-50.
  20. Mahmoud al-Hashemi, Mawsūʿat al-Fiqh al-Islāmī al-Muqārin , vol. 3 (Beirut: Dar al-Mahajja al-Baydaa, 2003), pp. 210-215.
  21. The term “institutionalized religion” refers to the supreme religious authority in Shia Islam, often led by a marjiʿ who holds the title of Āyat Allāh al-ʿUẓmā (Grand Ayatollah). The appointment of a marjiʿ is not governed by a formalized process, and there can be multiple marājiʿ (plural of marjiʿ) at the same time. These religious leaders are responsible for overseeing the seminary (ḥawza) and managing the financial assets that are entrusted to them through various religious channels, such as khums, donations, and other sources mentioned earlier.
  22. Kareem al-Ghazi, Director General of the Investigations Department at the Integrity Commission, stated that the number of properties encroached upon in Baghdad and the other provinces (excluding the Kurdistan region) reached 31,378, including “buildings, agricultural lands, parking lots, shops, residential houses and apartments, sidewalks and public streets, schools, public squares, and parks”. See: Fadhel al-Nashmi, “al-Nazāha al-ʿIrāqiyya Takshif Tajāwuzāt Ṭālat 31 Alf ʿAqār wa-Bināya Ḥukūmiyya,” Asharq Al-Awsat , 1/12/2021, accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://acr.ps/1L9BPUB
  23. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
  24. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction , Robert Hurley (trans.) (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), p. 93.
  25. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology , Guenther Roth & Claus Wittich (eds.), Ephraim Fischoff et al. (trans.) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 54.
  26. Biopower/Biopolitics: These terms, introduced by Foucault, refer to the ways in which governments regulate populations through the control of biological and bodily aspects of life. Biopower is the practice of modern states to manage the life of the population, focusing on the body as a site of regulation, discipline, and control. Biopolitics extends this concept to encompass the various strategies and mechanisms through which human life processes are managed under regimes of authority over knowledge, power, and the body.
  27. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison , Alan Sheridan (trans.) (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), p. 27.
  28. The term marjiʿiyya refers to the religious authority and leadership of a marjiʿ, who is a highly respected and qualified Islamic scholar. The marjiʿ serves as a source of emulation (marjiʿ al-taqlīd) for Shi’i Muslims, providing guidance on religious, legal, and ethical matters. The marjiʿiyya holds significant influence within Shia communities, not only in spiritual matters but also in social, political, and economic affairs. The authority of the marjiʿ is rooted in their extensive knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), and they are considered the highest authority on religious law for their followers, who are expected to emulate the marjiʿ’s interpretations and rulings in their daily lives.
  29. Habitus is a key concept in Bourdieu’s theory, referring to the deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals acquire through their life experiences and socialization. It represents the way society’s structures are internalized by individuals, shaping their perceptions, actions, and reactions, often unconsciously, in a manner consistent with their social and cultural environment.
  30. An example of this is Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, who has not given a direct public speech in over 70 years of his presence in the seminary and has appeared in the media only rarely and on infrequent occasions.
  31. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice , Richard Nice (trans.) (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), p. 52.
  32. The Panopticon is a conceptual prison design introduced by the philosopher Jeremy Bentham, where a single watchman can observe all inmates without them knowing whether they are being watched. Foucault adopted this concept metaphorically in his discussions of modern surveillance and control, suggesting that the Panopticon represents how power operates in society by inducing a state of conscious and permanent visibility that ensures the automatic functioning of power.
  33. Foucault, Discipline and Punish , pp. 195-228.
  34. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice , Richard Nice (trans.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 164.
  35. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction , Robert Hurley (trans.) (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), pp. 135-145.
  36. Pierre Bourdieu, “Genesis and Structure of the Religious Field,” Comparative Social Research, no. 13 (1991), p. 12.
  37. Pierre Bourdieu, Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action, Randal Johnson (trans.) (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), chap. 4, “The Laughter of Bishops,” pp. 75-79.
  38. Ecclesiastes 7:6 (NIV): “All the toil of man is for his mouth, yet his appetite is never satisfied”.
  39. Genesis 21:6 (NIV).
  40. Bourdieu, Practical Reason, pp. 113-114.
  41. Ibid., pp. 96-98.
  42. Khums is a religious concept in Twelver Shia Islam, referring to a mandatory religious tax that requires one-fifth (20%) of a person’s annual earnings, whether from work, trade, or other sources of income, to be paid. The khums is divided into two portions: the first is given to the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad from the Hashemite lineage, known as the sahm al-sādāt (the Sayyids’ share), and the second portion is reserved for the Imam, known as the sahm al-imām (the Imam’s share), which is handed over to the religious authorities or institutions representing the Hidden Imam during his occultation. The khums serves as a means to support religious institutions, the clergy, and various social and educational projects. It is considered a religious duty and fulfilling or neglecting it carries spiritual and religious implications.
  43. The term “simony” is used to describe the practice of buying or selling ecclesiastical positions or church privileges, a practice that dates back to the Middle Ages. The term is derived from the story of Simon the Sorcerer in the New Testament, who attempted to purchase the ability to bestow the Holy Spirit upon others through the laying on of hands.
  44. Robert B. Eklund et al., Sacred Trust: The Medieval Church as an Economic Firm (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
  45. See: Laura Henselmann, “The Shite Clergy in Iraq After Sistani: Growing Iranian Influence?,” Research Paper, no. 2, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Maison Du Futur, December 2017, p. 17.
  46. Jasim Imran al-Shammari, “al-Niẓām al-Qānūnī li-Istithmār Amwāl al-ʿAtabāt al-Muqaddasa: Dirāsa Muqārina,” Master’s Thesis, University of Karbala, 2013, p. 179.
  47. Ali Taher Hammoud (ed.), Al Hawzah of Najaf in Iraq (Amman: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2023).
  48. In Bourdieu’s sociological theory, doxa refers to the set of beliefs and practices that are taken for granted within a particular society or social group. These are the unquestioned assumptions that are so deeply ingrained in the collective consciousness that they appear natural or self-evident, shaping the way individuals perceive and interact with the world.
  49. al-Shammari, p. 198.
  50. Symbolic capital, as defined by Bourdieu, refers to the resources available to an individual or group based on honour, prestige, or recognition. Unlike economic capital, which is material, symbolic capital is intangible and operates within social fields, where it can be converted into other forms of capital (such as economic or social capital) and used to maintain or improve one’s position within a hierarchy.
  51. al-Shammari, pp. 14-18.
  52. Ibid., pp. 27-30.
  53. Hammoud (ed.), pp. 22–24.
  54. Ibid., pp. 25-28.
  55. “Tawsīʿat al-ʿAtaba al-ʿAbbāsiyya al-Muqaddasa,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  56. “Mashrūʿ Tawsīʿat al-Ṣaḥn al-ʿAẓīm li-l-ʿAtaba al-ʿAlawiyya,” al-ʿAtaba al-ʿAlawiyya , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://imamali.net
  57. “Mashrūʿ al-Sāqī al-Istirātījī al-Zirāʿī,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  58. “Sharikat al-Jūd li-l-Zirāʿa al-Ḥadītha,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  59. “Maṣnaʿ Albān al-Kafīl,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  60. “Maṣnaʿ Miyāh al-Kafīl,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  61. “Mustashfā al-Kafīl al-Takhaṣṣuṣī,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  62. “Maʿmal Intāj al-Uksījīn Khilāl Jāʾiḥat COVID-19,” Al-Kafeel, accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  63. “Jāmiʿat al-ʿAmīd,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alem.iq; “Jāmiʿat al-Kafīl,” Al-Kafeel, accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.edu.iq
  64. “Sharikat al-Kafīl li-l-Naql al-ʿĀmm,” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  65. “Mashrūʿ al-Ṭāqa al-Shamsiyya (5 MW),” Al-Kafeel , accessed on 10/12/2025, at: https://alkafeel.net
  66. Bourdieu, “Genesis and Structure of the Religious Field,” p. 12.
  67. Ibid., pp. 12-14.
  68. Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital,” in: J. G. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), p. 241.
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2025-05-01

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