Iraq is not Artificial: Iraqi Trends and the Refutation of the Artificial State Hypothesis

Authors

  • Author

  • Nahar Muhammed Nuri

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31430/almuntaqa.1.3.0009

Abstract

The main premise of this paper emerges from a treatment of the identities dominant throughout the nineteenth century and at the turn of the twentieth. Specifically, and significantly, this paper asserts that the three formerly Ottoman provinces or vilayet which would compose present-day Iraq — Mosul, Basra and Baghdad — were in fact led and centrally administered from Baghdad. This reality emerges through records of local correspondence and private reports, with official bodies that contained the concept of “Iraq”; in place of a common tribal or clan structure, there were Iraqis who shared a “homeland” analogous to the previous tribal concept of a dirah. Alternative narratives–particularly those adopted by British commentators–emphasize the “artificial” nature of Iraq, but these are overly reliant on a Eurocentric model for the formation of the nation-state. Such Eurocentric approaches are overly restrictive and fail to take into account diverging and alternative patterns for the emergence of modern states. Additionally, the inability of the Iraqi and other models to meet European standards of national homogeneity and territorial contiguity have been used to explain and justify political violence within the boundaries of Iraq, precisely that which British and other narratives have sought to promote.

References

  1. For geographical and historical context of the terms Iraq, iqlīm al-jazīrah and ‘irāq al-‘ajam , see Guy Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1905) pp. 24, 86, 101, 185. See also B. Lewis et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Islam , vol. II, 4th ed. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), p. 534; J. W. Redhouse, Redhouse’s Turkish Dictionary , 2nd ed. (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1880), Part II: Turkish and English , p. 654.
  2. For exhaustive details on administration, see Bayāt, Fāḍil, ad-Dawla al-‘Uthmāniyya fī’l-Majāl al-‘Arabī: Dirāsa Tārīkhiyya fī’l-Aḥwāl al-Idāriyya fī Ḍaw ʾ al-Wathāʾiq wa’l-Maṣādir al-‘Uthmāniyya Ḥaṣran [The Ottoman State in the Arab Sphere: A Historical Study of the Administrative Situation in View of
  3. This will be dealt with in detail in the study. See for example Henry Foster, The Making of Modern Iraq: A Product of World Forces, (Russell and Russell: New York, 1935), p. 12; Ghassan Atiyya: al-ʿIrāq: Nashʾat ad-Dawla 1908 - 1921 [Iraq: Emergence of the State 1908-1921]. Translated by 'Ata 'Abd-al-Wahhab. Ottoman Records and Sources Alone]. Beirut: The Centre for Arab Unity Studies, 2007. pp. 243, 392. Introduction by Hussain Jamil. London: Dar al-Lam, 1988, p. 36.
  4. Reidar Visser, “Proto-Political Conceptions of ‘Iraq’ in Late Ottoman Times,” International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies , vol. 3, no. 2 (2009), p.
  5. Stephen Hemsley Longrigg , Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), p. 126. See also Andreas Birken, Die Provinzen des Osmanischen Reiches (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1976), p. 226. The Iraqi historian 'Ala’ Musa Kazim Nuras points to the completion of the Iraqi polity with Basra vilayet: "[Hasan Paşa] was able to regain Basra from the Muntafiq [confederation] in 1708 [...] The Baghdad government only established full control over Basra in 1719, when it was assigned to his son, Ahmet Paşa. This marked the beginning of the unification of Iraq, under the rule of the Paşa of Baghdad [..] The latter had previously assumed control of Shahrizor vilayet in 1715". See 'Ala' Musa Kazim Nuras, Ḥukm al-Mamālīk fī’l-ʿIrāq 1750 - 18 31 [Mamluk Rule in Iraq, 1750-1831], New Book Series 84 (Baghdad: Dar al-Hurriyah Press, 1975), p. 18-22; Alexander Adamov, Wilāyat al-Baṣra fī Māḍīhā wa- Ḥāḍiriha [Basra Vilayet Past and Present], trans. Hashim Salih Al-Tikriti, 2nd ed. (Beirut/London: Al-Warrak Publishing Co. Ltd., 2011), pp. 390, 398.
  6. Dina Rizk Khoury, State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540–1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 215.
  7. Basra Vilayeti Salnamesi Sene-i 1308 [1890], Basra Matbaası, Birinci Defaa., pp. 65-69, Basra’nın Vilayeti Salnamesi Sene-i 1317 [1899] , Vilayet Matbaası, Üçüncu Defaa, pp. 118-122; Adamov, p. 398 - 399. Re-deployment continued without concern for administrative limitations until the turn of the twentieth century. The periodical Lughat al-ʿArab points to the emergence of the term "Inspector of Iraq" (Müfettiş-i Irak): "Celal Bey had previously been appointed provincial governor of Karbala and ruled Basra vilayet as a general inspector to reform Iraqi affairs" in 1912. See Lughat al-ʿArab: Majalla Shahriyya Adabiyya
  8. Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, ʿIraq: 1900-1950: A Political, Social, and Economic History (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 9. p. 30. an account of a visit to Shirauz and Persepolis , (London: James Duncan, 1836), p. 105.
  9. Claudius James Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, and on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. With journal of a voyage down the Tigris to Bagdad and ʿIlmiyya Tārīkhiyya [The Arab Tongue: A Monthly Literary, Scientific and Historical Journal], year 1, no. 12. (May 1912), p. 493.
  10. Adamov, pp. 527, 543, 545, 550, 580.
  11. Visser, p. 145. (Abu Dhabi: Cultural Encylopædia, 2003), p. 9.
  12. The most prominent instance of this may be the appearance of "Iraq" in the name of the military campaign conducted by Süleyman the Magnificent (1495- 1566, ruled 1520-1566) in Iraq and his conquest of Baghdad in 1534. It is known in Ottoman histories as the Irâkeyn Seferi (Two Iraqs Campaign), since it resulted in the annexation of both Irâk-ı Acem (the north-western part of Iran and the north-eastern part of Iraq) and Irâk-ı Arap (the south-central part of Iraq) to the Ottoman state. This is explicitly referenced by Matrakçı Nasuh es-Silâhî, who accompanied Sultan Süleyman’s campaign, in the title of his book Beyan-i Menazil-i Sefer-i Irâkeyn (Chronicle of the Two Iraqs Campaign). See Bayat, pp. 255-256, 268; Matrakçı Zadeh, Riḥlat Maṭraqīzāda li-Naṣūḥ as-Silāḥī ash- Shahīr bi-Maṭraqīzāda [Nasuh as-Silahi Matraqizadeh’s The Travels of Matraqizadeh], trans. Subhi Nazem Tawfiq, review by 'Ammad Abd-al-Salam Ra'uf
  13. Visser, pp. 145 - 146.
  14. See Nuras for a survey of the Mamluk era in Iraq. Ibid, p. 280.
  15. Abd-al-'Aziz Sulayman Nawar, Dāwūd Bāshā Wālī Baghdād [Davut Paşa, Vali of Baghdad] (Cairo: Arab Writer Printing and Publishing House, 1968). There was an abundance of expressions containing the phrase "Iraq" during the Mamluk period. The vali was occasionally called "the Minister of Iraq". Davut Paşa himself had been appointed to rule Baghdad, Basra and Shehrizor vilayets. A significant development to the term "Iraq" occurs in the Mamluk-era book, The Genealogy of Ministers , compiled and printed by the order of vali Davut Paşa in 1830. See: Kerküklü Resul/Rasul al-Kirkukli, Dawḥat al-Wuzarā fī Tārīkh Waqāʾi ʿ Baghdād az-Zawrā [The Genealogy of Ministers in the History of Baghdad], trans. Musa Kazem Nuras (Qom: Al-Sharif Al-Ridhi Publications, 1413
  16. Sinan Marufoğlu, al-ʿIrāq fī’l-Wathāʾiq al-ʿUthmāniyya: al-Awḍāʿ as-Siyāsiyya wa’l-Ijtimāʿiyya fī’l-ʿIrāq khilāl al-ʿAhd al-ʿUthmānī [Iraq in Ottoman H [c. 1992 / 1993 AD]), p. 275. Records: Iraq's Socio-Political Situation during the Ottoman Era] (Amman: Dar al-Shorok Publishing, 2006), pp. 233-234, also pp. 280 - 281.
  17. Bruce Masters, The Arabs of The Ottoman Empire 1516- 1918: A Social and Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 163. Safvet Geylangil, Yeni Resimli ve Haritalı Coğrafya-yı Riyazî ve Osmanî [A New Mathematical and Ottoman Geography with Maps and Illustrations], (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Hayriye ve Şürekâsı, 1331 [1913]).
  18. Visser, p. 146; B.B.A., Y.E.E., 14/257/126/8, 13 August 1323 / 26 August 1907, Quoted in: Selim Deringil, “The Struggle against Shiism in Hamidian Iraq:
  19. For further reading about the tenure of this vali , see Nadhr 'Ali Amin Al-Sharif, “Idārat al-Wālī Nāẓim Bāshā li-Wilāyat Baghdād 1910-1911” [The https://goo.gl/YNW9Q4 A Study in Ottoman Counter-Propaganda,” Die Welt des Islams, New Ser., Bd. 30, Nr. 1 / 4. (1990), p. 52. Administration of Vali Nazım Pasha in Baghdad Vilayet , 1910-1911], Majallat Kulliyyat al-Ādāb, No. 90 (University of Baghdad, 2009), pp. 124 - 157.
  20. Retrospect in IO/LPS/10/732. Fortnightly report no. 20, 11 October 1918, quoted in: Visser, p. 148.
  21. The headquarters of the Sixth Army was in Baghdad vilayet , and its purview encompassed Mosul. Significantly, one of the records of the General Chief of Staff of the Fourth War Directorate in 1849 refers to the army of the imperial authorities in the context of the "Iraqi khiṭṭa " which encompassed the three vilayets of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul. Previous references show how Mosul's local culture intermingled with "Iraq"-related expressions circulating in the Ottoman era. In his book, History of Mosul , Mosul historian Sa'id al-Diyuchi mentions a neighborhood called Bāb al-ʿIrāq (Iraq Gate) which in 1729 was the headquarters of the Ottoman 31st military division. He also refers to the largest Ottoman military division in Mosul, the Orta Irak, i.e. Middle Iraq. See T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Kirkuk (1525-1919)] Yayın Nu: 11 (Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı, 1993), s. 306-308; Sa'id
  22. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, s. 178- 182; See also a translation of extracts from this documentary book in: Mukhtārāt min Kitāb al-Mawṣil wa-Kirkūk fī’l-Wathāʾiq al-Uthmāniyya [Extracts from Writings on Mosul and Kirkuk in Ottoman Records], trans. with comments by Khalil 'Ali Murad,
  23. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, s. 194; Mukhtārāt min Kitāb al-Mawṣil wa-Kirkūk , p. 40, with Ottoman-language document source
  24. Y.MTV 72 / 43. “Letter from the governor of Mosul to the Ottoman cabinet dated 22/4-1310/12 November 1892,” Quoted in: Visser, p. 146; T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, s. 235- 238; Mukhtārāt min Kitāb al-Mawṣil wa-Kirkūk , p. 64-67, with Ottoman-language document source on pp. 222 - 223. A further Ottoman geographical source refers to the situation in the three vilayets (Mosul, Baghdad and Basra) in 1890 with the umbrella expression "the Iraqi Kara Bit, 1308 [1890], p. 319. Ali Tevfik was a
  25. BOA, İrâde Dâhiliye, note by Umûm Erkân-ı Harbiye Dairesi (Üçüncü Şubesi) dated 28 November 1906, quoted in: Visser, p. 146; C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı, Musul-Kerkük ile ilgili Arşiv Belgeleri (1525-1919) [Archival Documents Related to Mosul/ al-Diyuchi, Tārīkh al-Mawṣil (Mosul: Dar al-Kutub Press and Publishing Department, Mosul University, 2001), p. 150. (Sulaymaniyah: Bank-e Zayn, 2005), pp. 28-33, with Ottoman-language document source on pp. 196 - 199. on pp. 204 - 204. khiṭṭa ". See Ali Tevfik, Memalik-i Osmaniye Coğrafyası [Geography of the Ottoman Lands]. Istanbul: Kitap primary school teacher, and the book was published with the permission of the Ministry of Education. Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, p. 305. Leon Lawrence, Taqwīm Hilāl az-Zawrāʾ li- ʿ Ām 1911 [Hilal az-Zawra Almanac To 1911], (Baghdad: Al-Ādāb Press, 1911), pp. 2, 29.
  26. Ali Cevat was a military school graduate (idadiye-i askeriye) who authored popular historical and geographical works at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. It appears that this rare and detailed statistical work on Mosul vilayet and the percentages of its ethnic groups and religious sects may have drawn on an important reference source by Vital Cuinet, a French Orientalist, senior civil servant responsible for overseeing public debt in the Ottoman State and member of the Paris Geographical Society. The source is entitled Asiatic Turkey and was published in four parts. In this sense, it would be useful to recall that Cuinet's work subsequently retained its historical value, to the extent that a League of Nations commission, formed to adjudicate in the dispute concerning the ownership of Mosul vilayet between Iraq and Turkey in 1925, relied on it, among other sources, to dismiss economic arguments made by Turkey. In its report, the commission concluded that Mosul vilayet should be annexed to Iraq. Compare with the following statistical work on Mosul vilayet: Source: Mehmet Eşref, Muhtasar Târîh-i Umûmî ve Osmânî Atlası [Concise Atlas of General and Ottoman History] (Istanbul: Military Office Press, 1326 AH [1908 AD]). Mehmet Eşref, the author of this atlas, was a lieutenant colonel in the Ottoman Army and a trainer at the Military Academy.
  27. The Ottomans previously used the term "Iraq" to describe the military formations that would fight in Iraq at the start of the First World War in 1914, under the name Iraq Area Command (Irak ve Havalisi Komutanlıgı). See Edward J. Erickson, Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study (London
  28. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, Musul/Kerkük ile ilgili Arşiv Belgeleri , s. 364-374;: Mukhtārāt min Kitāb al-Mawṣil wa-Kirkūk fī’l- Wathāʾiq al-Uthmāniyya [Extracts from Writings on Mosul and Kirkuk in Ottoman Records], pp. 136-146, with Ottoman-language document source on pp. 282 - 292.
  29. A contemporary Ottoman telegram sent in 1919 from Van vilayet to the Ottoman Interior Ministry uses such expressions: "Reliable information has reached me concerning recent tumultuous events in Iraq... If the conflicting information is correct, the English will no longer hold any influence in this region and in Iraq". A 1919 military memorandum from the Fifteenth Division also discusses events in Erzurum vilayet relating to the situation of the British and their military encounters with rebel shaykh Mahmud al-Hafid in Sulaymaniyah. The memorandum refers to the presence of British figures whose new responsibilities were entitled "The Iraq Region": "A while later, the Commissioner for Iraq and the Captain of the Iraq Region flew to Sulaymaniyah". See T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet
  30. Hussain, pp. 20 - 22. Ironically, various Ottoman valis used the term "Iraq" in their writing to describe the identity of the region they served in. Thus Süleyman Nazif, who became vali of Basra in 1909, Mosul in 1913, and finally Baghdad in 1915, published an Ottoman-language in 1918 entitled Firâk-ı Irak. See Süleyman Nazif, Firâk-ı Irak: Mesâib-i Vatana Ağlayan Birkaç Neşidi [A Farewell to Iraq: A Few Nashid s Mourning the Misfortunes of the Nation] and New York: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Group, 2007), pp. 63 - 68. Arşivleri Genel Müdürlügü, s. 401-406, 408-410; with original Ottoman-language record on pp. 316 - 319. ([Unknown]: Saadet Mahmut Bey Press, 1918).
  31. Marufoğlu, p. 83, original document: p. 97. The shaykhs who asked Shaykh Bandar al-Sa'dun for their release were Mansur Beg and Mashari and Faris
  32. Ibid, pp. 222 - 223. Original document pp. 286 - 287. The signatories of this document were shaykhs from the Hatit, Albu Shama, Albu Hamdan and Bani
  33. I.e. Abu’l-Huda as-Sayyadi, advisor and Chief Sheikh (şeyh-i maşayih) during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II. For further exhaustive reading on Abu’l- Huda, see: Butrus Abu-Manneh, “Sultan Abdulhamid II and Shaikh Abulhuda Al-Sayyadi”. Middle Eastern Studies, 15:2, pp. 131 - 153.
  34. Marufoğlu, pp. 212-213, original document: p. 302. 2001), p. 43.
  35. Isam Jum'ah Ahmad Al-Mu'adhidi, aṣ-Ṣiḥāfa al-Yahūdiyya fī’l-ʿIrāq [Jewish Reportage in Iraq] (Cairo: International House For Cultural Investments, al-Majid. Musharraf tribes.
  36. Marufoğlu, p. 215, original document: p. 300. Renaissance in Iraq], review and introduction by Basil Sulayman Faydi. 3rd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 1998), p. 104.
  37. Sulayman Faidi, Mudhakkirāt Sulaymān Fayḍī: Min Ruwwād an-Nahḍa al-Arabiyya f’l-ʿIrāq [Memoirs of Sulayman Faidi: A Pioneer of the Arab
  38. Marufoğlu, pp. 238-241, original document: pp. 307 - 308. Tārīkh al- ʿ Irāqī as-Siyāsī al-Ḥadīth [Talib an-Naqib and His Role in the History of Modern Iraq] (Beirut: Arab Encylopædia House, 2002), pp. 277 - 287.
  39. Faydi, p. 104. For further reading on the work of the Basra Reform Society, see Hussain Hadi al-Shalah, Ṭālib Bāshā an-Naqīb al-Baṣrī wa-Dawruhu fī
  40. Marufoğlu, pp. 242-246, original document: pp. 309 - 310. review by 'Abd-al-Rizaq al-Husni (Dar al-Ma'mun Translation and Publishing, 1989), pp.115-127; Wamidh Jamal 'Umar Nizmi, Thawrat 1920: al-Judhūr as- Roots of the Arab Nationalist “Istiqlalist” Movement in Iraq], 2nd edition, (Baghdad: Centre for Arab Unity Studies, 1985), pp.142-148.
  41. The Covenant Association was founded in secret by 'Aziz 'Ali al-Masri, an Arab officer, on 28 October 1913. The majority of its members were Arab officers, predominantly Iraqi. The Association aimed to unite Arab soldiers. The organisation quickly formed branches in Damascus, Beirut, Iraq, Mosul and Basra in order to fight the policy of Turkification. Its activities ceased following the breakout of the First World War. At the end of the war, the Association split into an Iraqi and a Syrian branch. See Fuad Qazan (ed./trans.), al- ʿ Irāq fī’l-Wathā ʾ iq al-Biriṭāniyya 1905 - 1930 [Iraq in British Records 1905-1930], introduction and Siyāsiyya wa’l-Fikriyya wa’l-Ijtimāʿiyya li’l-Ḥaraka al-Qawmiyya al-ʿArabiyya al-“Istiqlāliyya” fī’l-ʿIrāq [The 1920 Revolution: The Political and Intellectual
  42. It is important to bear in mind in this context that Muhammad Reza al-Shabibi (1889-1965), a national figure who heralded from Najaf and who was one of the protagonists of the 1920 Revolution, made a statement concerning the integration of Mosul vilayet into the concept of "Iraq" without foreign oversight at a preparatory meeting convened in Najaf on 11 January 1918 for the general plebiscite. In his statement, al-Shabibi said: "The Iraqi people believe that Mosul is an inseparable part of Iraq. Iraqis see a fully independent national government as their right. None of us would contemplate choosing a foreign ruler". See: Jaʿfar
  43. While investigating Iraqi views concerning the nature of government and the state, the British conducted a plebiscite in the winter of 1918 - 1919 across several regions of the Iraqi vilayets. Various historical and economic dimensions emerge in the minutes of Al-Nasiriya: "Since childhood, we have been told that Iraq is comprised of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul vilayets. They were all called Iraq. Baghdad was always the capital of these vilayets. It was evident that Mosul was connected to Baghdad, because Baghdad drank from Mosul's waters and Mosul obtained its food from Baghdad by maritime trade. We can never accept the idea of Mosul vilayet being separated from Iraq. When war broke out between 'Ali and Muawiyah in the early years of Islam, Syria and its subjects were ruled by Muawiyah; on the other hand, Iraq, including Mosul, was ruled by 'Ali. This is reason enough". See Philip Willard Ireland, Iraq: A Study in Political Development (London: Cape, 1937), p. 166ff.; Hussain, p. 24. The original Iraqi-dialect text was published in the minutes of "The Iraq Progress Report", or what was known as "Self-Determination in Iraq", written in Arabic and English: Self-Determination in 'Iraq': Reproductions of original declarations by the people of
  44. Alan D. L. Rush, (consultant ed.), al-ʿIrāq fī Sijillāt al-Wathāʾiq al-Biriṭāniyya 1914 - 1966 [Iraq in British Documents and Records] , translated by Kazim al-Shaykh Al Mahbuba, Māḍī’n-Najaf wa-Ḥāḍiruhā [Najaf Past and Present], 2nd ed., (Beirut: Dar al-Aḍwāʾ, 1986), p. 356. 'Iraq' regarding the future of their country , 1919, p. 8. Sa'd al-Din, (Baghdad: Bayt al-Hikma, 2013), pp. 188 - 189.
  45. Ibid., p. 190. originally sixteen, questions. See: Rush (ed.), vol. 2, pp. 247, 274, 275; compare Hussain, p. 23.
  46. A slight technical difference exists in some of the sources that have translated this document. This difference can easily be seen on inspection of these three,
  47. Rush (ed.), vol. 2, p. 274. in Modern Iraq] (London: Dār al-Ḥikma, 2004), p. 33.
  48. For a faithful rendering of the biography of 'Abdul Jabbar Pasha al-Khayyat, see Mir Basri, Aʿlām as-Siyāsa fī’l-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth [Great Figures of Politics
  49. Abdul Rizaq Al-Husni, Tārīkh aṣ-Ṣiḥāfa al-ʿIrāqiyya [History of the Iraqi Press], 3rd ed. (Sidon: Al-'Arfan Press, 1971). pp. 90 - 99. in Modern Iraq], Silsila al-Kutub al-Ḥadītha 38 [Modern Books Series 38] (Baghdad: Dar al-Ḥurrīya Press, 1971), pp. 90 - 99. and Distribution, 2014).
  50. For a faithful rendering of Father al-Karmali's life, see Basri, Mir, Aʿlām al-Yaqaẓa al-Fikriyya fī’l-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth [Great Men of the Intellectual Awakening
  51. “ Tārīkh Waqāʾiʿ ash-Shahr Fī’l-ʿIrāq wa-mā Jāwarah” [The Month in Iraq and Its Environs], in Majallat Lughat al-Arab al-Baghdādiyya, Yūliyō 1911 — Oktōbir 1931 M [The Baghdad Journal The Arab Tongue , July 1911-October 1931 AD], Ed. Ibrahim Hamid al-Khalidi (Beirut: Jadawel Publishing, Translation
  52. Lughat al- ʿ Arab: year 1, no. 12. (August 1911), p. 52 - 53.
  53. John Joseph Diskin, “The Genesis of the Government Educational System in ‘Iraq’,” Ph.D thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh - Pennsylvania, 1971,
  54. Anastas Mari Al-Karmali, Khulāṣat Tārīkh al-ʿIrāq min Nushūʾihi ilā Bidāyat al-Qarn al-ʿIshrīn [An Overview of the History of Iraq From Its Advent to
  55. Ali Al-Wardi , Lamḥāt Ijtimāʿiyya Min Tārīkh al-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth [Glimpses of Society in the History of Modern Iraq], Book 4, (Baghdad: [name unknown], 1974), p. 370. Al-Husni's aforementioned book on the Iraqi press does not mention that the suggestion to call the newspaper al-ʿArab came from al-Alusi,
  56. For example, "[t]he British government wishes to advance the social situation in this region by securing its roads, spreading agriculture and moving its people beyond all the ruin they have faced," al-Karmali, p. 218., and "the British state constantly desires to develop and advance Iraq, and unite the voice of its
  57. Some of these interactions were connected to al-Karmali’s completion of his Overview of the History of Iraq in November 1918, as indicated in the book's introduction; with his involvement in the management of a British periodical, Dār as-Salām (House of Peace), published in Baghdad on 6 October 1918; and with his later replacement of this with another British journal called Mir ʾ āt alʿIrāq (Mirror of Iraq), published on 8 February 1919, printed in Basra and distributed
  58. Salim Al-Alusi, Ismā’l-ʿIrāq wa-Baghdād: al-Aṣl wa’l-Maʿnā fī’l-ʿUṣūr at-Tārīkhiyya [The names ‘Iraq’ and ‘Baghdad’: Origins and Meanings Throughout p. 297 no. 1. the Beginning of the Twentieth Century] (Beirut/London: Al-Warrak Publishing Co. Ltd., 2012), p. 9. attributing it instead to al-Karmali. people and its diaspora between Iraq and the British state in harmony, familiarity and collaboration", pp. 266 - 267. in Iraq. See al-Husni, pp. 36 - 37. the Ages], (Beirut/London: Al-Warrak Publishing Co. Ltd., 2013), p. 21.
  59. Despite Sara Pursley's pioneering work refuting the myth of the artificial state, which she dedicated particularly to the question of the Sykes-Picot map and the nature of the plans to draw up Iraq's borders, she makes a mistaken generalisation when she states that the Ottomans only used the term "Iraq" in a narrow sense when referring to Baghdad and Basra vilayets. See Sara Pursley, “‘Lines Drawn on an Empty Map’: Iraq’s Borders and the Legend of the Artificial State,”
  60. Rush (ed.), vol. 2, p. 375.
  61. Karl E. Meyer and Shareen Blair Brysac, Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East (New York: W.W Norton and Company, 2014), p. 199. 01/06/2014, p. 4. 2005), p. 161; Ireland, p. 116.
  62. Reeva S. Simon, “The Imposition of Nationalism on a Non-Nation State: The Case of Iraq During the Interwar Period, 1921-1941,” in: James Jankowski & Israel Gershoni (eds.), Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 87; 'Issam Al-Khafaji, "Tashakkul al-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth: al-Waqāʾiʿ wa’l-Asāṭīr” [The Formation of Modern Iraq: Myths and Reality], Kalamon Review: A Cultural Quarterly. No. 7 (Summer 2012), p. 2; 'Issam Al-Khafaji, "Tashkīl al-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth: al-Waqāʾiʿ wa’l-Asāṭīr” [The Formation of Modern Iraq: Myths and Reality], at-Tayyār ad-Dīmuqrāṭī ,
  63. Faruq Salih Al-'Umar, Ḥawl Siyāsat Biriṭānyā fī’l-ʿIrāq, 1913 - 19 21 [On British Policy in Iraq, 1913-1921] (Baghdad: Al-Irshad Press, 1977), p. 48; an alternative translation is: "Wilson played a decisive role in achieving a British advance northwards to Mosul. In his view, this brought political unity to a region that was a single organic entity in economic and geographical terms. With this he created the required upper boundary to an inter-connected land mass, in order to achieve an inhabitable state". See Reidar Visser, Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq (London: Global Book Marketing, Part 1, Jadaliyya, 02/06/2015, accessed on 30/04/2018 at: https://goo.gl/dnERhc
  64. Meyer and Brysac, pp. 196, 210.
  65. Adeed Dawisha, Iraq: A Political History from Independence to Occupation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), pp. 14 - 15.
  66. Sir Arnold T. Wilson, Mesopotamia, 1917-1920: A Clash of Loyalties:: a personal and historical record (London: Oxford University Press, 1931), p. 151.
  67. Rush (ed.), vol. 2., p. 664.
  68. Al-Khafji, "Tashakkul al-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth", p. 9. See also Anne Blunt, Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1879). 23, no. 3 (August 1991), p. 378.
  69. Eleizer Tauber, “The Struggle for Dayr al-Zur: The Determination of Borders between Syria and Iraq,” International Journal of Middle East Studies , vol.
  70. Elizabeth Burgoyne, Gertrude Bell: From Her Personal Papers, 1914-1926 , (London: Ernest Benn, 1961). The entire text of Miss Bell's letter to her father on that day is available on Newcastle University's indexed archive of her work: “Gertrude Bell Archive,” Newcastle University, accessed on 02/05/2018, at:
  71. Fanar Haddad, “Political Awakenings in an Artificial State: Iraq, 1914-1920,” International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies , vol. 6, no. 1 (2012), p.
  72. Ibid., p. 34. This fact notwithstanding, Haddad identifies the broad scope of identities: "Identity develops a momentum of its own and is only as ‘real’ as people believe it to be. Through the repetition of verbal or physical acts of allegiance, consciously or unconsciously, in other words through ritual, an idea, such https://goo.gl/QUL2Bd as the nation, gains relevance and becomes a reality." See ibid., p. 36.
  73. Al-Khafaji, "Tashakkul al-ʿIrāq al-Ḥadīth”: Myths and Reality", pp. 14, 16.
  74. For a fuller understanding, see Visser, p. 153.
  75. Pursley. 30/04/2018, at: https://goo.gl/eNiu43
  76. Sara Pursley, “‘Lines Drawn on an Empty Map’: Iraq’s Borders and the Legend of the Artificial State,” Part 2, Jadaliyya, 03/06/2015, accessed on
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  1. Orit Bashkin (2021) On Noble and Inherited Virtues: Discussions of the Semitic Race in the Levant and Egypt, 1876–1918. Humanities, 10(3), 88 https://doi.org/10.3390/h10030088

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