Hikama is a bi-annual peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to public policy and public administration, published by the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies and the Doha Institute for Graduate Studies.
Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies
This issue of the journal Hikama includes a selection of book reviews prepared by the editorial board, as follows: Malm, Andreas, and Wim Carton. The Long Heat: Climate Politics When It’s Too Late. London and New York: Verso, 2025. Seyuba, Katongo, and Florian Krampe. Climate-Resilience Investment in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations: Opportunities for Business. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Schrogl, Kai-Uwe, Christina Giannopapa, and Ntorina Antoni, eds. The Politics of Geoengineering: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Cham: Springer, 2026. Sunstein, Cass R. Climate Justice: What Rich Nations Owe the World—and the Future. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2025. ​ Dafallah, Anwar. Artificial Intelligence for a Green Planet: Harnessing Technology to Achieve Environmental Sustainability (in Arabic). Dubai: Zayed International Foundation for the Environment, 2025.
Tell Me Who Cites You, and I Shall Tell You Who You Are: Do Citations Truly Reflect Scholarly Reputation?
The book begins from a central problem in the contemporary research environment and academic publishing policies: the necessity of evaluating researchers and scientific institutions, and the growing demand for indicators assumed to be objective. However, these indicators reduce scholarly value to the number of citations, turning the researcher into a mere “number” in bibliometric tables, that is, the statistical measurement of citations. The book shows that these tools do not truly fulfill the purpose for which they were adopted, particularly in the social sciences and humanities, where scientific value is reduced to quantitative indicators that may mislead judgments and encourage distorted publishing practices.
Towards Palestinian Frameworks for Reconstruction in the Gaza Strip
This report provides an analytical overview of the papers presented at a workshop titled "Toward Palestinian Frameworks for Reconstruction in the Gaza Strip," organized by Hikama: Journal of Public Administration and Public Policy and the Center for Conflict and Humanitarian Studies, on the sidelines of the Fourth Annual Palestine Forum hosted by the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies in Doha, in cooperation with the Institute for Palestine Studies. Taking a critical perspective, the papers examined the U.S. and Israeli approaches proposed for reconstruction, emphasizing the need to articulate independent Palestinian national visions and policies. The contributions affirmed the centrality of Palestinians remaining on their land, ensuring their protection, and safeguarding their rights. They also highlighted the role of Palestinian political actors and local civil society organizations in shaping and implementing reconstruction policies, in addition to addressing governance-related issues. The papers further stressed the priority of rebuilding the Palestinian people themselves and strengthening the education, security, and food sovereignty sectors as foundational pillars of any national framework for reconstruction in the Gaza Strip.
The book Action publique et environnement , published in an updated edition in the “What Do I Know?” series, offers an analytical introduction to environmental crises, which have prompted states to rethink the mechanisms of public action. The two authors, Aurélien Évrard, a researcher specializing in energy policies, and Pierre Lascoumes, a researcher in the sociology of public action in France, address a set of central questions that the environment raises for the modern state. These include: How are political decisions made in a context of scarce data and conflicting scientific expertise? And how can multiple actors be integrated into the policymaking process, despite their differing interests and divergent perceptions of environmental risks?
This study examines the range of health risks facing individuals in Tunisia, focusing on the worsening burden of recurrent diseases and the potential emergence of new ones driven by climate change. It explores the dimensions of the national health strategy adopted by the government to adapt to these transformations and assesses the extent to which it responds to climate pressures, particularly in the areas of health risk management and strengthening the preparedness of the health system. The study also evaluates the effectiveness of the measures taken, especially in the fields of epidemiological surveillance and the performance of the public health system, highlighting the obstacles they face. Drawing on previous experiences, including the West Nile fever outbreak and the COVID-19 crisis, it identifies shortcomings in epidemiological monitoring, delays in governmental response, structural imbalances, and rising demand for health services. The study further underscores the limited role of the private health sector during crises and concludes with the need to revise policies to better support the public health system both in human and logistical capacities and to develop surveillance systems in ways that enhance resilience and reduce the costs of adapting to health risks.
Policies to Reduce Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Consumption: The Case of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
High consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has contributed to rising rates of chronic diseases and increasing economic burdens. In response, the government imposed an excise tax on these products in 2017, aiming to curb consumption and boost public revenues. Although this policy has had a direct impact, its implementation has been marked by several limitations that constrain its long-term effectiveness. This paper proposes an alternative policy designed to incentivize manufacturers to reduce sugar content, enhance public awareness, and support healthier alternatives, in alignment with the objectives of Saudi Vision 2030. It recommends restructuring the existing tax into a progressive model linked to the sugar content of the product, rather than imposing a fixed tax rate. It further calls for complementing this reform with additional measures, including the launch of nationwide awareness campaigns, the integration of nutrition education into school curricula, and the establishment of a health fund to support and sustain these interventions.
Transformations in Saudi Educational Policies Toward the Palestinian Cause in School Curricula (1990–2021)
This study examines the transformations in Saudi educational policies toward the Palestinian cause in school curricula, and the impact of local, regional, and global political and social contexts on the discourse produced by these policies. Through an analysis of 38 history textbooks published between 1990 and 2021, and using a critical discourse analysis approach, the study concludes that Islamic discourse initially dominated the curricula, with Palestine presented as part of the history of Islam and its conquests. Over time, the discourse gradually shifted, while maintaining an Islamic framing of Palestine. However, in 2019, with the implementation of "Vision 2030," radical transformations occurred, associated with a discourse focused solely on humanitarian aspects. The presence of Palestine in the new curricula significantly declined, being limited to a single lesson at the secondary school level.
Food Security in the Arab States: The Impact of International Financial Institutions' Policies and the Implications
This study explores the root causes of food insecurity in the Arab countries, highlighting the links between agricultural production and population growth. It examines how political and economic policies, particularly neoliberal policies, have reshaped agriculture—from subsistence farming for local consumption to export-oriented commercial farming—making the sector more vulnerable to climate change. The findings show that these policies have intensified climate-related pressures on water and land resources, compounding the challenges posed by demographic growth. Increasing dependence on food imports further heightens economic vulnerability amid global geopolitical shifts. The study recommends adopting an integrated approach to food security, emphasizing sustainable agricultural practices to ensure the longterm preservation of natural resources, reduce social inequalities, and secure reliable access to food for all social strata.
From a Public Right to an Economic Commodity: Water Policy Transformations in Jordan and Morocco
This study examines water management policies in Jordan and Morocco through the lens of public policy analysis, moving beyond purely technical and environmental accounts of water scarcity to highlight its political and social dimensions. It argues that water policies were not neutral; rather, since independence they have functioned as a strategic instrument for territorial control and for reinforcing the stability and continuity of political authority. Using a comparative analytical approach, the study traces the evolution of dam policy, privatization choices, and the role of international financial institutions in governing this vital resource. It finds that the predominance of the neoliberal model in water governance. This shift has led to the commodification of water, transforming it from a public right into an economic good. As a result, deep social and spatial inequalities have emerged, alongside an intensifying condition of water vulnerability. The study further underscores the limited capacity of privatization to deliver sustainable development and spatial justice, and it calls for integrated public policies grounded in good governance, transparency, and societal participation, while reaffirming water as a fundamental human right.
The Decline of Arab Network Activism Amid Digital Authoritarianism or Self-Restraint
The study examines whether the decline of Arab network activism is driven by the rise of digital authoritarianism through which regimes have reasserted control over online spaces or by increasing self-restraint among users shaped by fears of surveillance. It highlights how "technologies of the self" have become intertwined with authoritarian structures in the post–Arab Spring era, reinforced by narratives of algorithmic tracking, data collection, and data exchange between states and corporations. The study finds that this decline stems from three intersecting mechanisms: algorithmic, impersonal systems of control; user self-discipline rooted in fear; and participatory authoritarianism exercised by technological and political elites who shape content flows and public opinion. It further shows that surveillance now operates through a subtle form of collusion in which users participate voluntarily. This dynamic has weakened collective action and deepened digital authoritarianism, though a narrow margin remains for leveraging technical knowledge to resist surveillance capitalism.
Unlocking Access: Balancing National Security and Transparency in Defence
The report provides an overview of the state of defense transparency and access to information regarding the defense and security sectors worldwide, based on the Government Defence Integrity (GDI) database, which focuses on institutional integrity and corruption risks. Given the steady rise in global military spending—reaching a record high of USD 2.443 trillion in 2023—the report specifically emphasizes financial transparency in the defense sector as a key pillar for ensuring public accountability.
SIPRI Fact Sheet:Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2024
The fact sheet issued by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) presents data on military spending for 2024 at both regional and national levels, along with trends from 2015 to 2024. These figures, which replace all previously published SIPRI military expenditure data, are based on the institute’s updated Military Expenditure Database.
The Global Militarization Index (GMI), published by the Bonn International Center for Conflict Studies (BICC), provides a map illustrating the relative weight and significance of the military apparatus in each country compared to its societal structure. The index is based on data from the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), and BICC’s own datasets.
Research Handbook on Civil–Military Relations
This research handbook on civil–military relations begins from an understanding of the field’s complexity and the diversity of approaches within it, reflected in its wide range of authors and topics. It comprises twenty-four chapters written by thirty-one scholars from Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa. The editors argue that, unlike previous literature dominated by country-specific case studies, this volume stands out for its methodological and thematic organization: each section addresses key issues through contributions by leading experts. What distinguishes these works from earlier studies is their special attention to existing gaps in the literature, the introduction of new research questions, and the effort to propose solutions to unresolved problems across various areas of inquiry.
AI, Automation, and War: The Rise of a Military-Tech Complex
The book revolves around a central thesis: artificial intelligence will not replace the human mind in strategic leadership but will instead be used to process data on an unprecedented scale and speed to enhance military and intelligence understanding. From this perspective, the book explores how armies employ smart technologies to improve planning, cyber operations, and target identification with greater speed and efficiency. More importantly, it argues that investing in AI within the military field requires a radical organizational transformation in modern armies. It notes that armed forces have begun integrating civilian technologists into command and operations centers to work alongside military officers, leading to an institutional partnership between the military establishment and the technology sector, a new “military-tech complex” whose influence in the 21st century rivals that of the military-industrial complex of the 20th century.
Iran's Ministry of Intelligence: A Concise History
In his book The Iranian Ministry of Intelligence: A Brief History , Stephen R. Ward draws on nearly three decades of experience at the CIA to offer a deep, compelling analysis of one of the Middle East’s most prominent and least studied intelligence services. Across seven chapters, Ward presents a comprehensive view of the Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS), covering core themes: its origins and foundations, leadership, organizational structure, operations, the ministry’s place within Iran’s wider intelligence community, its cultural representations, and a forward-looking assessment of where the institution may be headed.
Intelligence and Decision-Makers in the Arab World: Diagnosing the Relationship and Democratic Governance
This paper examines the evolving relationship between political decision-makers and intelligence services in the Arab world, historically regarded as tools of authoritarian control. Focusing on the post–Arab Spring period, it assesses whether democratic norms and principles of security sector governance have influenced this dynamic. Analyzing cases from Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia, and Algeria, the study reveals that intelligence agencies remain largely politicized, lacking independence, impartiality, and effective institutional oversight. These conditions hinder meaningful reform and perpetuate a model in which intelligence services serve the interests of ruling elites rather than democratic accountability. Despite the promises of transformation following the uprisings, the findings indicate that structural and behavioral changes within intelligence institutions have been minimal. As a result, intelligence governance in the region continues to reflect authoritarian legacies, with limited progress toward aligning with democratic standards and best practices.
Climate Finance and Community Resilience in the Arab Countries
This study investigates the intersection of financing strategies, local climate governance, and the adaptive capacity of Arab communities to climate change. It addresses the paradox that, although these communities are among the most climate-vulnerable globally, they remain minimally engaged in mitigation and adaptation efforts. The research problem centers on the effectiveness of climate finance and policy instruments, alongside the role of local governance in enhancing resilience under conditions of limited transparency, weak coordination, and resource scarcity. Findings reveal that climate finance in Arab countries remains insufficient relative to the scale of challenges, and that weak coordination mechanisms further diminish the impact of available funds. The study argues that strengthening resilience requires policy approaches explicitly integrating adaptation priorities. It recommends scaling up sustainable climate investments, adopting innovative solutions, and institutionalizing local governance to ensure efficient and equitable management of climate finance.
Civil–Military Relations and Civil War Recurrence: Security Forces in Postwar Politics
Does restructuring security forces reduce the risk of civil war recurrence? Prior research has examined effects of military integration in alleviating commitment problems, but the evidence has been inconclusive. Other aspects of civil–military relations have received less attention. This article examines the effects of civil–military relations in the context of postwar struggles to consolidate authority. It outlines three pathways through which security forces contribute to renewed civil war: by excluding rival factions and facilitating insurgent mobilization, by exploiting control over resources to challenge the regime, or by escalating incipient insurgency through repression. Analysis of original, cross-national data on postwar civil–military relations shows that reducing the potential for exclusion and exploitation through diverse officer appointments and robust civilian oversight lowers the risk of civil war. These findings emphasize the distributive effects of restructuring security forces and highlight the value of examining political contests around state institutions to understand why civil wars restart.
Orders of Superiors Governance: An Approach to Governing the Security Sector through the Promotion of Human Rights
Given the demands of military discipline, which often require the unquestioned execution of superior orders, the need to distinguish between lawful and unlawful orders becomes critical—particularly in accordance with human rights principles and the rule of law. This study seeks to articulate safeguards for the governance of superior orders, grounded in international standards, thereby addressing a notable gap in the literature on security sector reform and civil-military relations in the Arab world. Rather than focusing on a specific case study, the research addresses twenty-five constitutions to explore how they regulate accountability for the execution of orders. The study concludes that the governance of superior orders is a crucial entry point for effective security sector reform, as its absence places subordinates in a persistent dilemma: either face legal consequences for refraining from executing an unlawful order or risk violating the law and infringing upon the rights of others by complying with it.
From the Barracks to the Parliament: Co-optation and Containment Policies Toward Military Retirees in Jordan's Parliamentary
This study examines the political role of retired military and security personnel in Jordan's legislative arena, focusing on their participation in the House of Representatives from 1989 to 2024. It highlights the structural and conjunctural factors that facilitated their growing presence, particularly during key political moments such as the post-Arab Spring period. The analysis explores the legislative and oversight behaviour of ex-military MPs, including their voting patterns on constitutional amendments, and motions of confidence, as well as their use of parliamentary tools such as questions and interpellations. The findings reveal a disproportionate level of representation relative to their electoral support, indicating shifts in the political landscape. The study argues that the regime pursued policies of co-optation and incorporation, especially in response to emerging opposition within this group. Their parliamentary presence has been instrumental in consolidating regime authority, legitimizing pro-government policies, and limiting executive oversight, thereby reinforcing the stability of the ruling order.
The Military and Politics in Tunisia: Politicization and Civilian Oversight from an Institutional Perspective
This study explores the evolving role of the Tunisian military in politics across three phases: exclusion from politics (1956-2011), voluntary neutrality (2011-2014), and active political engagement since 2019. These developments necessitate a reassessment of the military's professionalism, which has long been regarded as stable and apolitical. Drawing upon key theoretical frameworks and scholarly debates on civil–military relations in both democratic and Arab contexts, the study employs these perspectives as interpretive tools to analyze the military's shifting posture during each of the three periods. The findings suggest that the emergence of the Tunisian military as an interventionist political actor—particularly since the onset of the power struggle in 2019—constitutes a pivotal factor in eroding its professional military identity. Accordingly, the restoration of democratic governance in Tunisia is deemed essential to re-establish effective civilian oversight of the armed forces. Such oversight is crucial to restrain the military's expanding political ambitions, which are likely to intensify amid ongoing political fragmentation and elite competition for state power.
Intelligence and Governance in Iraq: from Authoritarianism to Fragmentation
This study traces the historical and institutional evolution of Iraq's intelligence agencies, charting their transformation from instruments of authoritarian control under the Ba'ath regime to fragmented bodies fractured along sectarian, ethnic, and political lines after 2003. It analyses the structural, legal, and political forces driving this shift, highlighting the corrosive impact of domestic interference, foreign influence, and persistent security crises. Drawing on official records, archival sources, over more than sixty interviews, and scholarly literature, the study demonstrates how institutional fragmentation continues to undermine governance and national stability. Post-2003 Iraq is arguably marked by a weak, multi-loyalty intelligence apparatus that erodes public trust and impairs effective security provision.
Introduction: Toward an Arab Approach to the Governance of Defense, Security, and Intelligence Institutions
This issue includes a selection of papers submitted for the special file on the governance of the defense, security, and intelligence sectors in Arab countries. This issue was proposed by Hikama Journal two years ago, with the aim of addressing a central issue that had not received sufficient attention in Arab research circles; namely, the management of this sector and the governance of its institutions from the perspective of their effectiveness and efficiency. In fact, this issue has long been overlooked in our region and treated merely as a technical or security matter, while in essence, it is a political and societal issue. Defense, security, and intelligence institutions are public institutions entrusted with safeguarding the territorial integrity of the state, protecting it from external threats, and ensuring its internal security. Therefore, their modernization and reform directly affect citizens’ lives, as well as the future of the state and its political, social, and economic trajectories.
Military Hybridization in Sudan and the Challenges of Security Sector Reform
This study examines the process of military sector reform in Sudan under a hybrid military regime, with a particular focus on efforts to establish a unified national army that incorporates the Rapid Support Forces. This issue has remained the primary obstacle to Sudan's political transition and was a central trigger of the war that erupted in April 2023. The study highlights the shortcomings of linear reform approaches and instead advocates for a nonlinear model centered on societal dynamics, arguing that such an approach would more effectively advance the reform process. It also explores key challenges to military reform, including the intersection of economic factors, the influence of regional security dynamics, the long-term consequences of the ongoing conflict, and the question of ownership over the reform process. The study concludes that externally imposed reform—without first achieving peace across all regions of Sudan—is ultimately futile.
Offshore: Stealth wealth and the new colonialism
This book explores the phenomenon of offshore finance, describing it as a secretive system that consolidates wealth among the rich while allowing them to evade legal oversight. In this work, Brooke Harrington seeks to uncover the mechanisms behind this system and its detrimental impact on democratic institutions, the capitalist economy, the state's ability to provide public services, and the environment. The book explains the parallel "offshore world," a hidden framework that enables wealthy elites to bypass tax obligations, circumvent environmental and labour laws, and sidestep campaign finance regulations, among other legal barriers perceived as obstacles to their economic interests. According to the author, these individuals do not merely exist outside the law—they live in isolation from the economic and social realities faced by the majority of people.
The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Ethics and Policy of Artificial Intelligence
This book offers a comprehensive overview of the legal, ethical, and policy aspects of artificial intelligence (AI) and algorithmic systems. It emphasizes the critical need for a precise understanding of the challenges and opportunities these modern technologies present. Combining theoretical analysis with practical case studies, the book illustrates how AI systems are applied in contemporary contexts, alongside the legal and policy frameworks that regulate these technologies. Special attention is given to the European context, with an in-depth examination of the legal framework governing AI within the European Union. The book features contributions from experts across various disciplines, whose insights provide a range of perspectives aimed at fostering a deeper understanding of AI’s societal impact and how it can be regulated in a responsible and effective manner.
The book Mediation in Conflicts in the Arab World explores the role of mediation in armed conflicts within the Arab region from a critical analytical perspective. It is divided into three main sections, each featuring in-depth studies contributed by researchers and experts. The book examines around fifteen case studies that highlight various mediation efforts in conflicts within the Arab world, as well as initiatives undertaken by Arab countries in neighboring conflicts—such as Algeria's role in mediating between Ethiopia and Eritrea, and Qatar’s mediation between the United States and the Taliban in Afghanistan. The editors— Ibrahim Fraihat, Professor of International Conflict at the Doha Institute for Graduate Studies, and Isak Svensson, Professor of International Conflict at Uppsala University, Sweden—note that much of the existing literature on mediation predates the year 2000 and fails to account for the complexities and transformations that Arab conflicts have undergone in the past two decades.
Government and Political Trust: The Quest for Positive Public Administration
This book views government as a system of intentional actions, meaning its quality can be evaluated based on the outcomes it generates. It raises a central question: What characteristics or forms should a government possess to improve our chances of living in safety and enhancing our quality of life? Throughout its eight chapters, the book raises fundamental questions: How can change be achieved in ways that gain public support and help restore trust, rather than deepening divisions within or between societies? How can the best leaders be chosen and the worst deterred? And how can a corrupt, distrustful system evolve to become more transparent and trustworthy?
Moroccan Development Strategies between Institutionalization of Power and Personalization: Review of the New Development Mod
The success of development depends on the existence of institutional safeguards that prevent its personalization. However, the concept of the institutional dimension remains ambiguous, as reflected in both academic literature on the relationship between institutions and development, and in reports issued by international organizations. This conceptual vagueness often leads to a reductionist understanding of institutional governance—one that emphasizes good management, efficiency, effectiveness, state capacity, and public trust, while sidelining its political dimensions, particularly democracy and the rule of law. The Moroccan case illustrates this issue clearly: since independence, development initiatives have been closely aligned with the priorities of the monarchy. While the limitations of the current development model are widely acknowledged, the proposed mechanisms and reform ideas have largely fallen short of expectations. Evaluative efforts have largely concentrated on the development model itself, with limited attention paid to the underlying institutional structures. Moreover, proposed alternatives have often decoupled developmental objectives from essential political reforms, particularly democratization and the consolidation of the rule of law.