الهوية الجمعية والحركات الاجتماعية

المؤلفون

  • مؤلفون

  • فرانشيسكا بوليتا
  • جيمس م. جاسبر

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31430/ujyq2146

الكلمات المفتاحية:

Politics، Protest، Culture، Group Boundaries

الملخص

التفت علماء الاجتماع إلى الهوية الجمعية كي يسدّوا ثغراتٍ في الروايات التي قدّمتها نظرية تعبئة الموارد ونظرية العملية السياسية عن ظهور الحركات الاجتماعية ومساراتها وتأثيراتها. وجرى التعامل مع الهوية الجمعية باعتبارها بديلًا من المصالح المحدَّدة بنيويًا في تفسير المزاعم التي يُعبّأ البشر من أجلها، وبديلًا من الحوافز الانتقائية في فهم الأسباب التي تدفع البشر إلى المشاركة، وبديلًا من العقلانية الأداتية في تفسير الخيارات التكتيكية التي يتّخذها الناشطون، وبديلًا من الإصلاحات المؤسسية في تقويم الآثار التي تخلّفها الحركات. كما جرى التعامل مع الهوية الجمعية بكلا المعنيين الفضفاض والضيق، وطُبِّقت في بعض الأحيان على ديناميات كثيرة، وحُوِّلت في أحيان أخرى إلى مقولة زائدة ضمن الروايات البنيوية، المتمركزة على الدولة والعقلانية.

المراجع

  1. يشير التمييز الإيجابي action Affirmative في الولايات المتحدة إلى الجهد الفاعل المبذول لتحسين عمالة أبناء الأقليات والنساء وتعليمهم وفرصهم. وبدأ هذا التمييز كعاج حكومي لمداواة آثار التمييز القديمة ضد هذه الجماعات، وتألّف من سياسات وبرامج وإجراءات وفّرت تفضيات محدودة للأقليات والنساء على مستوى العمل المأجور والقبول في مؤسسات التعليم العالي ومنح العقود الحكومية، وسوى ذلك من المنافع الاجتماعية. والمعايير النمطية بالنسبة إلى التمييز الإيجابي هي العرق والعجز والجندر والأصل الإثني والعمر. (المترجم)
  2. تتناول نظرية تعبئة الموارد الحركات الاجتماعية، وترى أنّ نجاح هذه الحركات يتوقف على الموارد (الزمن، المال، المهارات... إلخ) والقدرة على استخدامها. وحين ظهرت هذه النظرية، أول مرّة، شكّلت اختراقًا في دراسة الحركات الاجتماعية بسبب تركيزها على متغيرات اجتماعية وليس على متغيرات نفسية. وما عاد يُنظَر إلى الحركات الاجتماعية باعتبارها لاعقانية، انفعالية، غير منظّمة. وأخذت هذه النظرية في الحسبان، أول مرّة، التأثيرات الآتية من خارج الحركات الاجتماعية، مثل الدعم الذي تقدمه منظمات أخرى أو الحكومة. أمّا نظرية العملية السياسية، فتتناول الشروط والعقليات والأفعال التي تدفع حركة اجتماعية إلى أن تنجح في تحقيق أهدافها. وترى أنّ الفرص السياسية للتغيير يجب أن تكون حاضرة قبل أن يمكن حركة من الحركات تحقيق غاياتها. وهذا يعني أنَّ الحركة تحاول إحداث التغيير من خال البنى والعمليات السياسية القائمة. (المترجم)
  3. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965).
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  7. النظرية الكويرية (أو نظرية أحرار الجنس) theory Queer، هي خطاب نقدي برز في أواخر ثمانينيات القرن العشرين، وتناول قضايا متعددة مثل الجندر والتوجه الجنسي والذات، انطاقًا من البحث المثلي في حقول مثل النقد الأدبي والسياسة وعلم الاجتماع والتاريخ. ترفض النظرية الكويرية الجوهرانية، لتحلّ محلها البناء الاجتماعي؛ وهي تفكك الثنائيات الضدية مثل ثنائية شاذ/ قويم. وفي الوقت الذي تتبع خطى أولئك المفكرين ما بعد الحداثيين الذين أعلنوا موت الذات، تحاول في الوقت عينه إعادة الاعتبار والأهلية إلى ذاتٍ تتيح المجال للفاعلية الجنسية والسياسية. (المترجم)
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  15. ينظر: The Voice and the Eye Touraine,؛ ونقد Strategy or Identity Cohen,.
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  25. Gould, "Political Networks".
  26. تمرد الويسكي Rebellion Whiskey، حركة احتجاجية على الضرائب التي فرضتها الحكومة الاتحادية الأميركية المشكلة حديثًا في عهد جورج واشنطن على المشروبات الروحية كلها، وشملت أكثر الويسكي الذي كان المشروب المقطر الأكثر شعبية في الباد في القرن الثامن عشر، ومن هنا الاسم "ضريبة الويسكي" و"تمرد الويسكي". (المترجم)
  27. المؤسسة الشرقية Establishment Eastern، هي جامعات النخبة والمؤسسات المالية في كبريات مدن جنوب شرق الولايات المتحدة، حيث كثيرًا ما يُعتقد أنّ هذه المؤسسات، بفضل سيطرتها الاقتصادية والاجتماعية المديدة، مارست من النفوذ والتأثير ما يفوق حجمها. وغالبًا ما تتخذ هذه المؤسسة موقفًا جمهوريًا ليبراليًا. (المترجم)
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  36. Hirsch, Urban Revolt.
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  39. ينظر أيضًا: Margaret R. Somers, "The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach," Theory and Society , vol. 23, no. 5 (1994), pp. 605–649; Marc W. Steinberg, "‘The Labour of the Country Is the Wealth of the Country’: Class Identity, Consciousness, and the Role of Discourse in the Making of the English Working Class," International Labor and Working–Class History , no. 49 (1996), pp. 1–25.
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  47. Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 50.
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  49. Jasper, The Art of Moral Protest , pp. 23–29.
  50. Nathan Teske, Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 121.
  51. ينظر أيضًا: Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
  52. Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community: American Activists Reinventing Commitment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
  53. James M. Jasper & Jane D. Poulsen, "Recruiting Strangers and Friends: Moral Shocks and Social Networks in Animal Rights and Anti–nuclear Protests," Social problems , vol. 42, no. 4 (1995), pp. 493–512.
  54. كارثة جزيرة الثري مايل، هو التسرب النووي الخطر الذي حصل في محطة توليد نووية في هذه الجزيرة في مقاطعة دوفين، في بنسلفانيا، الولايات المتحدة في عام 979.1 (المترجم)
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  65. Joshua Gamson, "Must Identity Movements Self–destruct? A Queer Dilemma," Social Problems , vol. 42, no. 3 (1995), pp. 390–407. ينظر أيضًا: Steven Epstein, "Gay Politics, Ethnic Identity: The Limits of Social Constructionism," Socialist Review , vol. 93, no. 17 (1987), pp. 9–54; Steven Seidman, "Identity and Politics in a ‘Postmodern’ Gay Culture: Some Historical and Conceptual Notes," in: Michael Warner (ed.), Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1993), pp. 105–142; Shane Phelan, Identity Politics: Lesbian Feminism and the Limits of Community (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1989); Diana Fuss, Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature, and Difference (New York: Routledge, 1989).
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  69. Lichterman, The Search for Political Community.
  70. ينظر أيضًا: Sherryl Kleinman, Opposing Ambitions: Gender and Identity in an Alternative Organization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
  71. Jasper, The Art of Moral Protest.
  72. Elisabeth S. Clemens, The People’s Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p. 50.
  73. Jasper, The Art of Moral Protest.
  74. William A Gamson, "Commitment and Agency in Social Movements," Sociological Forum , vol. 6, no. 1 (1991), pp. 27–50.
  75. James G. Ennis, "Fields of Action: Structure in Movements’ Tactical Repertoires," Sociological Forum , vol. 2, no. 3 (1987), pp. 520–533.
  76. Nancy Whittier, Feminist Generations: The Persistence of the Radical Women’s Movement (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995).
  77. Etahn Micah Cohen, Ideology, Interest Group Formation, and the New Left: The Case of the Clamshell Alliance (New York: Garland, 1988).
  78. Robert Ross, "Generational Change and Primary Groups in a Social Movement," in: Jo Freeman (ed.), Social Movements of the Sixties and Seventies (New York: Addison–Wesley Longman Limited, 1983), pp. 177–187.
  79. Steven Pfaff, "Collective Identity and Informal Groups in Revolutionary Mobilization: East Germany in 1989," Social Forces , vol. 75, no. 1 (1996), pp. 91–117.
  80. Laura Pulido, "Development of the ‘People of Color’ Identity in the Environmental Justice Movement of the Southwestern United States," Socialist Review , vol. 26, no. 3/4 (1996), pp. 145–180.
  81. ينظر أيضًا: Paul Lichterman, "Talking Identity in the Public Sphere: Broad Visions and Small Spaces in Sexual Identity Politics," Theory and Society , vol. 28, no. 1 (1999), pp. 101–141.
  82. Mary Bernstein, "Celebration and Suppression: The Strategic Uses of Identity by the Lesbian and Gay Movement," American Journal of Sociology , vol. 103, no. 3 (1997), pp. 531–565.
  83. Hunt, Benford & Snow; Gamson, "Political Discourse and Collective Action."; Klandermans.
  84. William K. Carroll & Robert S. Ratner, "Master Framing and Cross–movement Networking in Contemporary Social Movements," The Sociological Quarterly , vol. 37, no. 4 (1996), pp. 601–625.
  85. Myra Marx Ferree & Silke Roth, "Gender, Class, and the Interaction between Social Movements: A Strike of West Berlin Day Care Workers," Gender & Society , vol. 12, no. 6 (1998), pp. 626–648.
  86. ينظر أيضًا: Cynthia Gordon & James M. Jasper, "Overcoming the ‘NIMBY’ Label: Rhetorical and Organizational Links for Local Protestors," Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change , vol. 19, no. 2 (1996), pp. 159–81.
  87. Benita Roth, "Feminist Boundaries in the Feminist–friendly Organization: The Women’s Caucus of ACT UP/LA," Gender & Society , vol. 12, no. 2 (1998), pp. 129–145.
  88. Tarrow, Chapter 7.
  89. ينظر أيضًا: Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Henry Holt, 1995).
  90. Joan W. Scott, "Deconstructing Equality–versus–difference: Or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism," Feminist Studies , vol. 14, no. 1 (1988), pp. 33–50.
  91. Ibid.; Ruth Milkman, "Women’s History and the Sears Case," Feminist Studies , vol. 12, no. 2 (1986), pp. 375–400.
  92. Martha Minow, Making All the Difference: Inclusion, Exclusion, and American Law (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); Kimberle Crenshaw, "A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Law and Politics," in: David Kairys (ed.), The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique , 2 nd ed. (New York: Pantheon, 1990).
  93. Rebecca L. Bordt, "How Alternative Ideas Become Institutions: The Case of Feminist Collectives," Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly , vol. 26, no. 2 (1997), pp. 132–155.
  94. Francesca Polletta, "Culture and its Discontents: Recent Theorizing on the Cultural Dimensions of Protest," Sociological Inquiry , vol. 67, no. 4 (1997), pp. 431–450.
  95. Walter W. Powell & Paul J. DiMaggio, "Introduction," in: Walter W. Powell & Paul J. DiMaggio (eds.), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago press, 1991), pp. 1–38.
  96. Lichterman, "Talking Identity in the Public Sphere."; Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962–1968: The Great Refusal (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989); Epstein, Political Protest and Cultural Revolution.
  97. Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James Max Fendrich, Ideal Citizens: The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement (Albany: State University; New York Press, 1993); Kim Lacy Rogers, Righteous Lives: Narratives of the New Orleans Civil Rights Movement (New York: New York University Press, 1993); Molly Andrews, Lifetimes of Commitment: Ageing, Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Jack Whalen & Richard Flacks, Beyond the Barricades: The Sixties Generation Grows Up (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1989); Verta Taylor & Nicole C. Raeburn, "Identity Politics as High–risk Activism: Career Consequences for Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Sociologists," Social Problems , vol. 42, no. 2 (1995), pp. 252–273; Whittier, Feminist Generations.
  98. Jane Mansbridge, "What is the Feminist Movement?," in: Myra Marx Ferree & Patricia Yancey Martin (eds.), Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women’s Movement (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995), pp. 27–34.
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  113. ينظر أيضًا: Mustafa Emirbayer, "Amanifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology , vol. 103, no. 2 (1997), pp. 281–317; Craig Calhoun, "Indirect Relationships and Imagined Communities: Large–scale Social Integration and the Transformation of Everyday Life," in: Pierre Bourdieu, James S. Coleman & Zdzislawa Walaszek Coleman (eds.), Social Theory for a Changing Society (New York: Russell Sage Found, 1991), pp. 95–120.
  114. Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden’s Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
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