عمليات التأطير والحركات الاجتماعية: لمحة عامة وتقويم

المؤلفون

  • مؤلفون

  • روبرت د. بينفورد
  • ديفيد أ. سنو

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31430/llky8411

الكلمات المفتاحية:

الحركات الاجتماعية، إطار، فعل جمعي، بناء الواقع، الثقافة

الملخص

يشير الانتشار السريع الحديث العهد للبحث الأكاديمي حول أطر الفعل الجمعي والعمليات التأطيرية المتعلّقة بالحركات الاجتماعية إلى أن العمليات التأطيرية باتت تُعَدّ، إلى جانب عمليات تعبئة الموارد والفرصة السياسية، ديناميةً رئيسة في فهم طبيعة الحركات الاجتماعية ومسارها. تتفحّص هذه الدراسة ما تقدّمه أدبيات التأطير من فائدة تحليلية لفهم ديناميات الحركات الاجتماعية. نراجع أولًا كيف فُهمَت أُطر الفعل الجمعي، وسماتها المميزة والمتغيرة. ثم نتفحّص الأدبيات المتعلقة بديناميات التأطير وعملياته. ونراجع بعد ذلك الأدبيات التي تنظر في عوامل سياقية متنوعة تقيّد عمليات التأطير وتيسّرها. ونختم بإحكام عواقب عمليات التأطير بالنسبة إلى عمليات أخرى للحركة ومخرجاتها. ونسعى، طيلة ذلك كله، لأن نوضح الصلات بين مفاهيم/ عمليات التأطير وصياغات مفهومية ونظرية أخرى ذات صلة بالحركات الاجتماعية، مثل المخططات (الإسكيمات) والأيديولوجيا.

المراجع

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  10. على الرغم من أنّ الإشارات إلى المعاني والمعتقدات والقيم وفكرة الأيديولوجيا الأعم كانت شائعةً تاريخيًا في أدبيات الحركة الاجتماعية، فإنّ معالجة هذه المفاهيم لم تكن مرضية عمومًا بسبب ميلين اثنين: مناقشتها الوصفية والسكونية لا التحليلية والدينامية، كما هي الحال في جزء كبير من العمل قبل سبعينيات القرن العشرين، واستبعادها على أنّها لا صلة لها، عمومًا، بتطور الحركة الاجتماعية، كما في الأدبيات الأولى الخاصة بتعبئة الموارد. ينظر: Snow & Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," pp. 135–136.
  11. دعت استقصاءات قريبة العهد حول الصلة بين الثقافة والحركات الاجتماعية والأُطر والأيديولوجيا والمفاهيم المتعلقة بها على نحو مباشر أو غير مباشر إلى توضيح العلاقة بين الأُطر والأيديولوجيا. ينظر: Anne E. Kane, "Theorizing Meaning Construction in Social Movements: Symbolic Structures and Interpretation During the Irish Land War, 1879–1882," Sociological Theory , vol. 15, no. 3 (1997), pp. 249–276; Rhys H. Williams, "Constructing The Public Good: Social Movements and Cultural Resources," Social Problems , vol. 42, no. 1 (1995), pp. 124–144; Fisher, "Locating Frames in the Discursive Universe"; Oliver & Johnston; Mayer N. Zald, "Culture, Ideology, and Strategic Framing," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), pp. 261–274. فمن الواضح أنهما ليسا الشيء الواحد ذاته. تُصَوَّر الأيديولوجيا عمومًا على أنّها مجموعة واسعة ومتماسكة ومعمّرة نسبيًا من المعتقدات التي تؤثّر في توجّه المرء، ليس في السياسة فحسب، بل في الحياة اليومية عمومًا. ويصمد هذا التصوّر سواء أيّد المرء رؤيةً أعمّ وأكثر حيادية للأيديولوجيا (كليفورد غيرتز مثل) أو رؤيةً أكثر نقدية تنظر إلى الأيديولوجيا على أنّها تعمل عملها كي تُديم البنى الطبقية وعلاقات السيطرة القائمة (جون ب. طومسون مثل). ينظر: Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); John B. Thompson, Studies in the Theory of Ideology (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 1984). وفي أيّ من الحالتين، فإَّنَ الإشارة هي إلى مجموعةٍ منتشرةٍ ومتكاملة من المعتقدات والقيم ذات قوة كبيرة. في المقابل، تعمل أطر الفعل الجمعي بوصفها مضخّماتٍ وموسّعات مبتكرة لأيديولوجياتٍ قائمة أو مكونات منها، أو مضاداتٍ لها. وفقًا لذلك، تعمل الأيديولوجيا قيدًا وموردًا على حد سواء بالعلاقة مع عمليات التأطير وأُطر الفعل الجمعي، وهي علاقة نتطرّق إليها في مواضع عدّة من الدراسة. لنقاش مفصّل للعلاقة بين الأيديولوجيا والتأطير، ينظر: Oliver & Johnston; David A. Snow & Robert D. Benford, "Clarifying the Relationship Between Framing and Ideology in The Study of Social Movements: A Comment on Oliver and Johnston," Mobilization (2000), accessed on 4/7/2024, at: https://cutt.ly/UefduJHw; David A. Snow, "Ideology, Framing Processes, and Islamic Movements," Paper Presented at Sociology of Islamic Social Movements Conference, New York, 2000.
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  46. نناقش ذلك لاحقًا.
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  70. ينظر على سبيل المثال: Saul D. Alinsky, Rules for Radicals: A Pragmatic Primer for Realistic Radicals (New York: Random House, 1971).
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  79. Timothy J. Kubal, "The Presentation of Political Self: Cultural Resonance and the Construction of Collective Action Frames," Sociological Quarterly , vol. 39, no. 4 (1998), pp. 539–554.
  80. Leo d’Anjou & John Van Male, "Between Old and New: Social Movements and Cultural Change," Mobilization: An International Quarterly , vol. 3, no. 2 (1998), pp. 207–226.
  81. Valocchi, p. 126.
  82. ينظر على سبيل المثال: Hart; Jasper; Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," in: Johnston & Klandermans (eds.), pp. 25–40; Rhys H. Williams & Timothy J. Kubal, "Movement Frames and the Cultural Environment: Resonance, Failure, and The Boundaries of The Legitimate," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change , vol. 21 (1999), pp. 225–248.
  83. Gary Alan Fine, "Public Narration and Group Culture: Discerning Discourse in Social Movements," in: Johnston & Klandermans (eds.), pp. 127–143; Johnston, "A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schemata"; Steinberg.
  84. على سبيل المثال: Cable & Shriver; Čapek; Gamson, Talking Politics ; Gamson, Fireman & Rytina; Johnston & Snow; Kubal; Neuman; Triandafyllidou & Fotiou; White; Zdravomyslova; David A. Snow & J. Miller, "An Empirical Examination of Frame Articulation and Amplification," (1999) Unpublished Manuscript.
  85. Gamson, Talking Politics.
  86. Snow et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation."
  87. McCallion & Maines.
  88. Gerhards & Rucht.
  89. McCallion & Maines; Park; Ellen Reese, "Maternalism and Political Mobilization: How California’s Postwar Child Care Campaign was Won," Gender & Society , vol. 10, no. 5 (1996), pp. 566–589; Tracey Skillington, "Politics and the Struggle to Define: A Discourse Analysis of the Framing Strategies of Competing Actors in a 'New' Participatory Forum," British Journal of Sociology , vol. 48 (1997), pp. 493–513; Weed; Williams, "Constructing the Public Good"; Zuo & Benford.
  90. Ronnelle Paulsen & Karen Glumm, "Resource Mobilization and the Importance of Bridging Beneficiary and Conscience Constituencies," National Journal of Sociology , vol. 9, no. 2 (1995), pp. 37–62.
  91. Carroll & Ratner, "Master Framing and Cross–Movement Networking in Contemporary Social Movements"; Davies.
  92. McCallion & Maines; Benford, "Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement."
  93. Daniel B. Cornfield & Bill Fletcher, "Institutional Constraints on Social Movement 'Frame Extension': Shifts in the Legislative Agenda of the American Federation of Labor, 1881–1955," Social Forces , vol. 76, no. 4 (1998), p. 1317.
  94. Benford, "Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement."
  95. Benford Jr, "Framing Activity, Meaning, and Social Movement Participation," p. 75.
  96. Robert D. Benford & Scott A. Hunt, "Social Movement Counterframing and Reframing: Repairing and Sustaining Collective Identity Claims," Presented at Midwest Sociological Society Conference, St. Louis, 1994.
  97. Charlotte Ryan, Prime Time Activism: Media Strategies for Grassroots Organizing (Boston: South End Press,
  98. Benford & Hunt; William R. Freudenburg & Robert Gramling, "Midrange Theory and Cutting–Edge Sociology: A Call for Cumulation," Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences , vol. 76 (1994), pp. 3–6; Zuo & Benford.
  99. Roberta L. Coles, "Peaceniks and Warmongers’ Framing Fracas on The Home Front: Dominant and Opposition Discourse Interaction During the Persian Gulf Crisis," The Sociological Quarterly , vol. 39, no. 3 (1998), pp. 369–391; Davies; Naomi T. Krogman, "Frame Disputes in Environmental Controversies: the Case of Wetland Regulations in Louisiana," Sociological Spectrum , vol. 16, no. 4 (1996), pp. 371–400; W. Lawrence Neuman, "Negotiated Meanings and State Transformation: The Trust Issue in the Progressive Era," Social Problems , vol. 45, no. 3 (1998), pp. 315–335; Williams, "Constructing the Public Good."
  100. Doug McAdam, "The Framing Function of Movement Tactics: Strategic Dramaturgy in the American Civil Rights Movement," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), pp. 338–355; Meyer, "Framing National Security."
  101. Ellingson; Evans.
  102. McAdam, "The Framing Function of Movement Tactics."
  103. Todd Gitlin, "Spotlights and Shadows: Television and the Culture of Politics," College English , vol. 38, no. 8 (1977), pp. 789–801; Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free, 1978).
  104. William A. Gamson et al., "Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality," Annual Review of Sociology , vol. 18, no. 1 (1992), pp. 373–393; William A. Gamson & Gadi Wolfsfeld, "Movements and Media as Interacting Systems," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , vol. 528, no. 1 (1993), pp. 114–125; Ryan; Scheufele.
  105. Robert M. Entman & Andrew Rojecki, "Freezing Out the Public: Elite and Media Framing of the US Anti–Nuclear Movement," Political Communication , vol. 10, no. 2 (1993), pp. 155–173; John D. McCarthy, Jackie Smith & Mayer N. Zald, "Accessing Public, Media, Electoral, and Governmental Agendas," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), pp. 291–311.
  106. Tim Baylor, "Media Framing of Movement Protest: The Case of American Indian Protest," The Social Science Journal , vol. 33, no. 3 (1996), pp. 241–255; William A. Gamson & Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology , vol. 95, no. 1 (1989), pp. 1–37; Klandermans & Goslinga.
  107. Benford, "Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement."
  108. Michael M. Jessup, "Legitimacy and the Decline of the 1920s Ku Klux Klan," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change , vol. 20 (1997), pp. 177–221.
  109. Elisabeth S. Clemens, "Organizational form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880–1920," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), pp. 205–226.
  110. Ellison 1995, p. 136.
  111. David A. Snow & Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross–National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in: Porta, Kriesi & Rucht (eds.), pp. 23–49.
  112. Jenness & Broad; Jenness.
  113. Jenness & Broad, p. 417. التشديد في الأصل.
  114. McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.).
  115. Anheier et al.; Benford & Valadez; Evans; Helena Flam, "Anxiety and the Successful Oppositional Construction of Societal Reality: The Case of KOR," Mobilization: An International Quarterly , vol. 1, no. 1 (1996), pp. 103–121; Hank Johnston & David A. Snow, "Subcultures and the Emergence of the Estonian Nationalist Opposition 1945–1990," Sociological Perspectives , vol. 41, no. 3 (1998), pp. 473–497; Marullo.
  116. Goodwin & Jasper.
  117. Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociology Review , vol. 51, no. 2 (April
  118. Sidney Tarrow, "Mentalities, Political Cultures, and Collective Action Frames: Constructing Meanings Through Action," in: Morris & Mueller (eds.), p. 189.
  119. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement , 2 nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 118.
  120. Berbrier; d’Anjou & Van Male; Kubal; Nepstad; Gerald M. Platt & Michael R. Fraser, "Race and Gender Discourse Strategies: Creating Solidarity and Framing the Civil Rights Movement," Social Problems , vol. 45, no. 2 (1998), pp. 160–179; Taylor.
  121. Coy & Woehrle; Ellingson; Evans.
  122. McAdam, "The Framing Function of Movement Tactics."
  123. Edward Walsh, Rex Warland & D. Clayton Smith, "Backyards, NIMBYs, and Incinerator Sitings: Implications for Social Movement Theory," Social Problems , vol. 40, no. 1 (1993), pp. 36–37.
  124. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1959).
  125. Benford & Scott A. Hunt, "Dramaturgy and Social Movements"; Kubal.
  126. Jasper & Poulsen.
  127. William A. Gamson & David S. Meyer, "Framing Political Opportunity," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), p. 285.
  128. Mario Diani, "Linking Mobilization Frames and Political Opportunities: Insights from Regional Populism in Italy," American Sociological Review , vol. 61 (1996), pp. 1053–1069.
  129. Goodwin & Jasper.
  130. Ruud Koopmans & Jan Willem Duyvendak, "The Political Construction of the Nuclear Energy Issue and Its Impact on the Mobilization of Anti–Nuclear Movements in Western Europe," Social Problems , vol. 42, no. 2 (1995), pp. 235–251.
  131. على سبيل المثال: Jasper; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); David A. Snow & Pamela E. Oliver, "Social Movements and Collective Behavior: Social Psychological Dimensions and Considerations," in: Karen S. Cook, Gary Alan Fine & James S. House (eds.), Sociological Perspectives on Social Psychology (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1995), pp. 571–599; Verta Taylor & Nancy E. Whittier, "Collective Identity in Social Movement Communities: Lesbian Feminist Mobilization," in: Morris & Carol Mueller (eds.), pp. 104–129.
  132. Gamson, "The Social Psychology of Collective Action," p. 56.
  133. David A. Snow & Doug McAdam, "Identity Work Processes in the Context of Social Movements: Clarifying the Identity/ Movement Nexus," in: Sheldon Stryker, Timothy J. Owens & Robert W. White (eds.), Self, Identity, and Social Movements (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2000 [in press]).
  134. Hunt, Benford & Snow, p. 185.
  135. Scott A. Hunt & Robert D. Benford, "Identity Talk in the Peace and Justice Movement," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography , vol. 22, no. 4 (1994), pp. 488–517.
  136. للخلاصة، ينظر: Marco G. Giugni, "Was it Worth the Effort? The Outcomes and Consequences of Social Movements," Annual Review of Sociology , vol. 24, no. 1 (1998), pp. 371–393.
  137. Čapek; Diani; Reese; Walsh, Warland & Smith; Elena Zdravomyslova, "Opportunities and Framing in the Transition to Democracy: The Case of Russia," in: McAdam, McCarthy & Zald (eds.), pp. 122–137; Zuo & Benford.
  138. Daniel M. Cress & David A. Snow, "The Outcomes of Homeless Mobilization: The Influence of Organization, Disruption, Political Mediation, and Framing," American Journal of Sociology , vol. 105, no. 4 (2000), pp. 1063–1104.
  139. Fisher, "Locating Frames in The Discursive Universe"; Francesca Polletta, "'It Was Like a Fever…' Narrative and Identity in Social Protest," Social Problems , vol. 45, no. 2 (1998), pp. 137–159; Steinberg.
  140. Berbrier; Jasper.
  141. Ibid.; David A. Snow et al., "Disrupting The’ Quotidian’: Reconceptualizing the Relationship between Breakdown and the Emergence of Collective Action," Mobilization: An International Quarterly , vol. 3, no. 1 (1998), pp. 1–22.
  142. Johnston, "A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schemata"; Jürgen Gerhards, "Framing Dimensions and Framing Strategies: Contrasting Ideal–and Real–Type Frames," Social Science Information , vol. 34, no. 2 (1995), pp. 225–248.
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