الانتخابات في ظل الاستبداد

المؤلفون

  • مؤلفون

  • جينيفر غاندي جامعة إيموري، أتلانتا، جورجيا، الولايات المتحدة
  • إلين لوتر-أوكار جامعة ييل، نيو هيفن، كونيكتيكوت، الولايات المتحدة

  • مترجم

  • حسن حجيج

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31430/IPSJ9465

الكلمات المفتاحية:

الدكتاتورية، السلوك الانتخابي، المؤسسات

الملخص

ركّزت الدراسات الحالية للانتخابات في الأنظمة الاستبدادية1I2 على استكشاف العلاقة بين الانتخابات والدمقرطة، واستخدمت عمومًا، للقيام بذلك، أطرًا ومناهج تحليلية مستعارة من دراسة الانتخابات في السياقات3II4 الديمقراطية الحقيقية. منعت هذه التوجهاتُ العلماءَ من طرح مجموعة واسعة من الأسئلة عن الديناميات الجزئية للانتخابات في الأنظمة الاستبدادية والاختلافات البنيوية بينها. تسعى هذه المراجعة، مع مراعاة هذه القضايا، لفحص الأدبيات التي تدرس هدف الانتخابات في الدكتاتوريات، والسلوك الانتخابي للناخبين والمرشّحين والسلطات القائمة فيها، والعلاقة بين الانتخابات والدمقرطة. وتنتهي المراجعة بالدعوة إلى إعادة توجيه دراسة الانتخابات الاستبدادية نحو كشف الاختلافات المهمة القائمة بينها وتفسيرها.

السير الشخصية للمؤلفين

  • جينيفر غاندي، جامعة إيموري، أتلانتا، جورجيا، الولايات المتحدة
    أستاذة العلوم السياسية، جامعة إيموري، أتلانتا، جورجيا، الولايات المتحدة.
  • إلين لوتر-أوكار، جامعة ييل، نيو هيفن، كونيكتيكوت، الولايات المتحدة
    أستاذة العلوم السياسية، جامعة ييل، نيو هيفن، كونيكتيكوت، الولايات المتحدة.
  • حسن حجيج
    سوسيولوجي ومترجم مغربي.

المراجع

  1. T. Zeldin, The Political System of Napoleon III (London: Macmillan, 1958); E. Posada-Carbo, Elections before Democracy: The History of Elections in Europe and Latin America (New York: St. Martin's, 1996).
  2. S. Hyde, "Observing Norms: Explaining the Causes and Consequences of Internationally Monitored Elections," PhD. Thesis, Department of Political Science, University of California, San Diego, 2006; P. Roessler & M. M. Howard, "Electoral Dominance in Authoritarian Regimes," Paper Presented in the Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Boston, MA, 2008.
  3. G, Hyden & C. Ley, "Elections and Politics in Single-Party Systems: the Case of Kenya and Tanzania," British Journal of Political Science , vol. 2, no. 4 (1972); G. Hermet, R. Rose & A. Rouquie, Elections without Choice (New York: Wiley, 1978).
  4. المقصود الاختلافات في طبيعة الأنظمة الانتخابية التي تجري وفقها الانتخابات، مثل:ا نظام نسبي أو نظام الغالبية. (المحرر)
  5. L. Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Journal of Democracy , vol. 13, no. 2 (2002); S. Levitsky & L. A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," Journal of Democracy , vol. 13, no. 2 (2002); A. Schedler (ed.), Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006).
  6. B. Geddes, "Authoritarian Breakdown: Empirical Test of A Game Theoretic Argument," Paper Presented in the Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA, 1999.
  7. C. Boix & M. Svolik, "The Foundation of Limited Authoritarian Government: Institutions and Power-Sharing in Dictatorships," Paper Presented at the Conference of Dictatorships: Their Governance and Social Consequences Conference, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 2008.
  8. B. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
  9. J. Gandhi & A. Przeworski, "Cooperation, Cooptation, and Rebellion Under Dictatorship," Economics & Politics , vol. 18, no. 1 (2006); J. Gandhi, Political Institutions Under Dictatorship (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); J. Wright, "Do Authoritarian Institutions Constrain? How Legislatures Affect Economic Growth and Investment," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 52, no. 2 (2008).
  10. E. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism: Preliminary Lessons from Jordan," Democratization , vol. 13, no. 3 (2006).
  11. B. Geddes, "Why Parties and Elections in Authoritarian Regimes?" Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, 2005; Alberto Simpser, "Making Votes not Count: Strategic Incentives for Electoral Corruption," PhD. Dissertation, Department of Political Science, Stanford University, 2005; Magaloni; E. Malesky & P. Schuler, "Why do Single-Party Regimes Hold Elections? An Analysis of Candidate-Level Data in Vietnam's 2007 National Assembly Contest," Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Boston, MA, 2008.
  12. B. Magaloni, "Credible Power-Sharing and the Longevity of Authoritarian Rule," Comparative Political Studie s, no. 41 (2008), p. 724.
  13. E. Lust-Okar, Structuring Conflict in the Arab World: Incumbents, Opponents, and Institutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
  14. E. Beaulieu, "Protesting the Contest: Election Boycotts Around the World 1990-2002," PhD. Thesis, Department of Political Science, University of California San Diego, California, 2006.
  15. J. Gandhi & O. J. Reuter, "Opposition Coordination in Legislative Elections Under Authoritarianism," Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Boston, MA, 2008.
  16. A. Diaz-Cayeros & B. Magaloni, "Party Dominance and the Logic of Electoral Design in Mexico's Transition To Democracy," Journal of Theoretical Politics , vol. 13, no. 3 (2001).
  17. B. Ames, "Bases of Support for Mexico's Dominant Party," American of Political Science Review , vol. 64, no.1 (1970); Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; J. Brownlee, Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
  18. M. Birney, "Can Local Elections Contribute to Democratic Progress in Authoritarian Regimes? Exploring the Political Ramifications of China's Village Elections," PhD. Thesis, Department of Political Science, Yale University, CT, 2007.
  19. D. Acemoglu & J. Robinson, Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
  20. G. Cox, "Authoritarian Elections and Leadership Succession, 1975-2000," Department of Political Science, University of California San Diego, California, 2008.
  21. M. Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review , vol. 90, no. 4 (1996).
  22. T. Shi, "Voting and Nonvoting in China: Voting Behavior in Plebiscitary and Limited-Choice Elections," The Journal of Politics , vol. 61, no. 4 (1999). للاطلاع على وجهة نظر مخالفة، يراجع: L. Tsai, Accountability without Democracy: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision in Rural China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
  23. R. Karklins, "Soviet Elections Revisited: Voter Abstention in Noncompetitive Voting," American Political Science Review , vol. 80, no. 2 (1986); للمقارنة بأشكال أخرى من المشاركة، ينظر: D. Bahry & B. Silver, "Soviet Citizen Participation on the Eve of Democratization," American Political Science Review , vol. 84, no. 3 (1990).
  24. Shi; J. Chen & Y. Zhong, "Why do People Vote in Semi-Competitive Elections in China?" The Journal of Politics , vol. 64, no. 1 (2002).
  25. J. Waterbury, "Fortuitous Byproducts," in: L. Anderson (ed.), Transitions to Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).
  26. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."; E. Lust-Okar, "Legislative Elections in Hegemonic Authoritarian Regimes: Competitive Clientelism and Resistance to Democratization," in: S. Lindberg (ed.), Democratization by Election: A New Mode of Transition (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
  27. نشكر طارق مسعود على مناقشاته الثاقبة لهذه النقطة.
  28. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."
  29. L. Blaydes, "Who Votes in Authoritarian Elections and Why? Vote Buying, Turnout, and Spoiled Ballots in Contemporary Egypt," Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 2006; Lust-Okar, "Elections Under Authoritarianism …"; E. Lust-Okar, "Elections in Authoritarian Regimes: Catalysts for, or Obstacles to, Reform?," in: A. Langlois & K. Soltan (eds.), Democracy and Globalization (London: Routledge, 2008); K. Greene, Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico's Democratization in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); T. Pepinsky, "Autocracy, Elections, and Fiscal Policy: Evidence from Malaysia," Studies in Comparative International Development , vol. 42, no. 1-2 (2007); T. Masoud, "Why Islam Wins: Electoral Ecologies and Economics of Political Islam in Contemporary Egypt," PhD. Thesis, Department of Political Science, Yale University, CT, 2008.
  30. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."
  31. S. Wang, "The Role of Local Elections in Authoritarian Regimes: The Case of China's Village Elections," PhD. Thesis, Department of Political Science, Yale University, CT, 2008.
  32. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."; Lust-Okar, "Elections in Authoritarian Regimes."
  33. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy , p. 20.
  34. Birney; Shi; Wang.
  35. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."; Masoud; S. Shehata, "Inside an Egyptian Parliamentary Campaign," in: E. Lust-Okar & S. Zerhouni (eds.), Political Participation in the Middle East and North Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2008).
  36. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  37. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."
  38. Blaydes; G. M. Tezcur, "Intra-Elite Struggles in Iranian Elections," in: Lust-Okar & Zerhouni (eds.).
  39. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; Masoud; Malesky & Schuler.
  40. N. van de Walle, "Tipping Games? When do Opposition Parties Coalesce?" in: Schedler (ed.).
  41. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."; B. Magaloni, A. Diaz- Cayaros & F. Esteves, "Clientelism and Portfolio Diversification: A Model of Electoral Investment with Applications to Mexico," in: H. Kitschelt & S. Wilkenson (eds.), Patrons, Clients and Policies; Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Blaydes; Masoud; Shehata.
  42. Shehata, pp. 100-101.
  43. E. Lust-Okar, "Competitive Clientelism in Jordanian Elections," in: Lust-Okar & Zerhouni (eds.).
  44. H. Hourani, H. Abu Rumman & N. A. Kamel, Who's Who in the Jordanian Parliament: 2003-2007? (Amman, Jordan: Sindbad, 2004).
  45. R. Pastor & Q. Tan, "The Meaning of China's Village Elections," The China Quarterly , no. 162 (2000).
  46. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  47. Lust-Okar, "Elections in Authoritarian Regimes."
  48. J. Gandhi & O. J. Reuter, "Economic Performance and the Unraveling of Hegemonic Parties," Paper Presented at the Constitutions and Markets Conference, European University Institute, San Domenico di Fiesole, Italy, 2007.
  49. C. Lawson, Building the Fourth Estate: Democratization and the Rise of a Free Press in Mexico (Berkeley: University California Press, 2002); Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  50. J. Langston, "Elite Ruptures: When do Ruling Parties Split?" in: Schedler (ed.).
  51. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy , p. 22.
  52. الأدق الحديث عن "جماعة" أو "تنظيم" الإخوان المسلمين، لكون خلال الفترة التي تغطيها الدراسة لم يكن للإخوان المسلمين حزب سياسي مرخص له، بل كان جل المترشحين المنتمين إليها يتقدمون بصفة مستقلين في الانتخابات التي سمحت لهم بذلك فيها السلطات المصرية إبان حكم الرئيس محمد حسني مبارك (2011-1981). (المحرر)
  53. S. Lindberg, "The Surprising Significance of African Elections," The Journal of Democracy , vol. 17, no. 1 (2006).
  54. E. Beaulieu & S. Hyde, "In the Shadow of Democracy Promotion: Strategic Manipulation, International Observers, and Election Boycotts," Comparative Political Studies , vol. 42, no. 3 (2008).
  55. Greene; Gandhi & Reuter, "Economic Performance and the Unraveling of Hegemonic Parties."
  56. Diaz-Cayeros & Magaloni.
  57. Lust-Okar, Structuring Conflict.
  58. Magaloni, "Credible Power-sharing."
  59. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy , p. 72.
  60. يستخدم مصطلح "دورة الأعمال السياسية" أساسًا لوصف تقديم الحكومة فوائد أو امتيازات اقتصادية للناخبين، أو لجزء منهم قبل الانتخابات مباشرة من أجل تحسين احتمال إعادة انتخابها (المترجم).
  61. L. Blaydes, "Electoral Budget Cycles under Authoritarianism: Economic Opportunism in Mubarak's Egypt," Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 2006; Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; Pepinsky.
  62. M. Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (New York: Wiley, 1951).
  63. K. Bawn, "The Logic of Institutional Preferences: German Electoral Law as a Social Choice Outcome," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 37, no. 4 (1993); T. Remington & S. Smith, "Political Goals, Institutional Context, and the Choice of an Electoral System: the Russian Parliamentary Election Law," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 40, no. 4 (1996); C. Boix, "Setting the Rules of the Game: the Choice of Electoral Systems in Advanced Democracies," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 93, no. 3 (1999); K. Benoit, "Models of Electoral System Change," Electoral Studies , no. 23 (2004); K. Benoit, "Electoral Laws as Political Consequences: Explaining the Origins and Change of Electoral Institutions," Annual Review of Political Science , vol. 10, no. 1 (2007).
  64. أو ما يسمى "النظام الأغلبي". (المحرر)
  65. E. Lust-Okar & A. Jamal, "Rulers and Rules: Reassessing the Influence of Regime Type on Electoral Law Formation," Comparative Political Studies , no. 35 (2002); M. Pripstein Posusney, "Multi-party Elections in the Arab world: Institutional Engineering and Oppositional Strategies," Studies in Comparative International Development , vol. 36, no. 4 (2002); Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  66. Lust-Okar, Structuring Conflict in the Arab World ; Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."; D. Patel, "The Bridge on the River Jordan: Islam, Ethnicity, and Electoral Rule Manipulation," Paper Presented at the Middle East Studies of Political Science Association Annual Meetings, Boston, MA, 2006; E. Malesky, "Gerrymandering-Vietnamese Style: Escaping the Partial Reform Equilibrium in a Non-Democratic Regime," Paper Presented the Annual Meetings of Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 2005.
  67. P. Siavelis & A.Valenzuela, "Electoral Engineering and Democratic Stability: the Legacy of Authoritarian Rule in China," in: A. Lijphart & C. Waisman (eds.), Institutional Design in New Democracies: Eastern Europe and Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996); M. Kaminski, "How Communism Could Have Been Saved: Formal Analysis of Electoral Bargaining in Poland in 1989," Public Choice , no. 98 (1999); P. Navia, "You Select The Rules of The Game and Lose: Advantages and Constraints When Choosing Electoral Rules: The Case of Chile," PhD. Thesis, Department of Politics, NY University, 2003.
  68. Simpser; Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  69. F. Lehoucq, "Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types, and Consequences," Annual Review of Political Science , no. 6 (2003).
  70. G. Cox & M. Kousser, "Turnout and Rural Corruption: New York as a Test Case," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 25, no. 4 (1981); F. Lehoucq & I. Molina, Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in Costa Rica (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); D. Donno & A. Roussias, "Cheating Pays: The Impact of Electoral Manipulation in Party Systems," Paper Presented at the Annual Meetings of American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 2006.
  71. Simpser; H. Esfandiari, "Is Iran democratizing? Observations on Election Day," in: L. Diamond, M. F. Plattner & D. Brumberg (eds.), Islam and Democracy in the Middle East (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
  72. J. Molinar Horcasitas, El Tiempo de la Legitimidad. Elecciones, Autoritarismo y Democracia en Mexico (Mexico: Cal y Arena, 1991).
  73. A. Simpser, "The Manipulation of Mass Elections: Fraud, Expectations and Turnout." Working Paper , Department of Political Science, Stanford University, 2003.
  74. Lust-Okar & Jamal.
  75. B. Geddes, "Why Parties and Elections in Authoritarian Regimes?"; Simpser, "Making Votes not Count."; Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  76. Lust-Okar & Jamal.
  77. G. Cox & J. Katz, Elbridge Gerry's Salamander: The Electoral Consequences of the Reapportionment Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
  78. S. Stokes, "Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model of Machine Politics with Evidence from Argentina," American Political Science Review , no. 99 (2005).
  79. A. Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Anderson et al., Losers' Consent: Elections and Democratic Legitimacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
  80. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  81. Lust-Okar, "Elections in Authoritarian Regimes."
  82. N. van de Walle, "Elections without Democracy: Africa's Range of Regimes," The Journal of Democracy , vol. 13, no. 2 (2002); Lindberg, "The Surprising Significance of African Elections."; M. Beissinger, "Structure and Example in Modular Political Phenomena: The Diffusion of Bulldozer/ Rose/ Orange/Tulip Revolutions," Perspectives on Politics , vol. 5, no. 2 (2007); D. Donno, "Partners in Defending Democracy: Regional Intergovernmental Organizations and Opposition Mobilization after Flawed Elections," Paper Presented at the Elections and Political Identities Conference, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2007; J. Tucker, "Enough! Electoral Fraud, Collective Action Problems, and Post-Communist-Colored Revolutions," Perspectives on Politics , vol. 5, no. 3 (2007); V. Bunce & S. Wolchik, "Favorable Conditions and Electoral Revolutions," Journal of Democracy , vol. 17, no. 4 (2006).
  83. A. Schedler, "The Nested Game of Democratization by Elections," International Political Science Review , vol. 23, no. 1 (2002).
  84. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; Greene; Lust-Okar, "Elections in Authoritarian Regimes."
  85. A. Schedler, "The Nested Game."
  86. S. Huntington, The Third Wave (Tulsa: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); M. Bratton & N. van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Schedler, "The Nested Game."; S. Lindberg, Democracy and Elections in Africa (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006); S. Lindberg, "The Power of Elections in Africa Revisited," in: Lindberg (ed.).
  87. A. Baturo, "Presidential Succession and Democratic Transitions," iiisd Working Paper 209, The Institute of International Integration Studies Discussion (2007).
  88. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; Greene.
  89. M. Pei, "Creeping Democratization in China," The Journal of Democracy , vol. 6, no. 4 (1995).
  90. Birney, p. 153; Shi; L. Li, "The Empowering Effect of Village Elections in China," Asian Survey , vol. 43, no. 4 (2003).
  91. M. M. Howard & P. G. Roessler, "Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes," American Journal of Political Science , vol. 50, no. 2 (2000).
  92. Lindberg, "The Surprising Significance of African Elections"; P. G. Roessler & M. M. Howard, "Post-Cold War Political Regimes: When do Elections Matter?" in: Lindberg (ed.).
  93. T. Eisenstadt, Courting Democracy in Mexico: Party Strategies and Electoral Institutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
  94. Bunce & Wolchik; Beissinger.
  95. M. Thompson & P. Kuntz, "Stolen Elections: The Case of the Serbian October," The Journal of Democracy , vol. 15, no. 4 (2004), p. 162.
  96. الثورات الملونة هي التسمية التي اشتهر بها عدد من الاحتجاجات الشعبية التي عرفها عدد من دول أوروبا الشرقية في بداية القرن العشرين (خصوصًا أوكرانيا وبيلاروسيا) لإسقاط أنظمة هجينة برع الماسكون بالسلطة فيها في عمليات التلاعب الانتخابي للبقاء في الحكم. (المحرر)
  97. D. Brinks & M. Coppedge, "Diffusion is no Illusion: Neighbor Emulation in the Third Wave of Democracy, " Comparative Political Studies , vol. 39, no. 4 (2006); K. Gleditsch & M. Ward, "Diffusion and the International Context of Democratization," International Organization , vol. 60, no. 4 (2006).
  98. J. Wright, "Foreign aid and Authoritarian Regime Survival: How Aid Can Foster Democratization," Working paper , Department of Political Science (University of Notre Dame), 2008.
  99. S. Hyde & N. Marinov, "Does Information Generate Self-enforcing Democracy? The Role of International Election Monitoring," Paper Presented at the Institute of Studies of Association Annual Convention, 49 th , Bridging Multiple Divides, San Francisco, CA, 2008.
  100. Hyde; E. Bjornlund, Beyond Free and Fair: Monitoring Elections and Building Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2004).
  101. A. Simpser, "Unintended Consequences of Election Monitoring," in: M. Alvarez, T. Hall & S. Hyde (eds.), Election Fraud: Detecting and Preventing Electoral Manipulation (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 2008); A. Simpser & D. Donno, "Unintended Consequences of Monitoring Regimes: The Case of International Election Monitoring," Paper Presented at the Annual Meetings of Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 2008.
  102. J. McCoy & J. Hartlyn, "Electoral Processes and Democratization in Latin America," Paper Presented at the Annual Meetings of American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 2007; J. McCoy & J. Hartlyn, "The Relative Powerlessness of Elections in Latin America," in: Lindberg (ed.).
  103. Bratton & van de Walle; Lindberg, "The Surprising Significance of African Elections."; Lindberg, Democracy and Elections in Africa.
  104. A. Hadenius & J. Teorell, "Pathways from Authoritarianism," The Journal of Democracy , vol. 18, no. 1 (2007).
  105. J. Brownlee, "Harbinger of Democracy: Competitive Elections Before the End of Authoritarianism," in: Lindberg (ed.).
  106. Lust-Okar, "Elections under Authoritarianism."
  107. Howard & Roessler.
  108. van de Walle, "Tipping Games?"; Gandhi & Reuter, "Opposition Coordination."
  109. S. Block, K. Feree & S. Singh, "Multiparty Competition, Founding Elections and Political Business Cycles in Africa," Journal of African Economies , vol. 12, no. 3 (2003).
  110. Lust-Okar & Jamal; Posusney; Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy ; Masoud.
  111. Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy.
  112. Gandhi; J. Vreeland, "Political Institutions and Human Rights: why Dictatorships Enter into the United Nations Convention Against Torture," International Organization , vol. 62, no. 1 (2008).
  113. G. Zhenglin & T. P. Bernstein, "The Impact of Elections on Village Structure of Power: The Relations Between the Village Committees and the Party Branches," Journal of Contemporary China , vol. 13, no. 29 (2004).
  114. S. Wang & Y. Yao, "Grassroots Democracy and Local Governance: Evidence from Rural China," World Development , vol. 35, no. 10 (2007).
  115. A. Keshavarzian, "Contestation without Democracy: Elite Fragmentation in Iran," in: M. Pripstein Posusney & M. Penner Angrist (eds.), Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimes and Resistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005); Tezcur.
  116. E. Lust-Okar, "Reinforcing Informal Institutions through Authoritarian Elections," Middle East Law Governance Journal , vol. 1, no. 1 (2009).

التنزيلات

PDF (مستضاف)
HTML

منشور

2024-09-01

إحصاءات الاستخدام

57 مشاهدة 44 تنزيل

إصدار

مجلد 12 عدد 070 (2024): العدد السبعون

القسم

دراسات مترجمة

الرخصة

الحقوق الفكرية (c) 2024 Jennifer Gandhi, Ellen Lust-Okar (Author)

Creative Commons License

هذا العمل مرخص بموجب Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.