US Aid and Post-2011 Democratic Transition in Egypt: A Critical Review

Authors

  • Author

  • Alaa Bayoumi

Keywords:

Egypt, US Aid, Democratic Transition

Abstract

The paper investigates and analyzes the regional and international interactions with the conflict in Libya, focusing on the period following the December 2015 political agreement in Skhirat, Morocco. The paper argues that this agreement is the result of a limited consensus among domestic and regional forces. These forces have moulded their foreign policies, over the course of the conflict, based on a balance between concerns over the political and economic effects of the Libyan democratic transition and their interests and ambitions for greater control and influence. The conflict of interests between the external forces was a substantial factor along with other internal determinants that have contributed to obstructing the democratic transition process. Therefore, this paper explores a series of research questions, mainly focusing on the role and behavior of the influential external forces in Libya's domestic politics.

Author Biography

  • Alaa Bayoumi
    Egyptian Researcher.

References

  1. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, "The Global State of Democracy: Exploring Democracy's Resilience," (Stockholm: 2017), pp. 9-13, accessed on 2019/1/15, at: https://bit.ly/2Ago9vY
  2. Laurel E. Miller et al, Democratization in the Arab World (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2012), p. 16, accessed on 2019/1/15, at: https://bit.ly/2sSYQvx
  3. Thomas Carothers, "Democracy Assistance: Political vs. Developmental," Journal of Democracy , vol. 20, no. 1 (Jan 2009), accessed on 2019/1/15, at: https://bit.ly/2LKyL8O
  4. Sujian Guo, "Democratic Transition: A Critical Overview," Issues & Studies , no. 4 (July/ August 1999), pp. 133-148, accessed on 2019/1/15, at: http://bit.ly/2D43Dx8
  5. Samsondeen Ajagbe, "Aligning the Two Main Approaches to the Study of Democratization," Transcience , vol. 7, no. 1 (2016), pp. 83-99, accessed on 2019/1/15, at: https://bit.ly/2l5SAMP
  6. Lindsay Lioyd, "European Approaches to Democracy Promotion," International Journal , vol. 65, no. 3 (Summer 2010), pp. 547-559, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2JKZvJ8; Nisreen Khaled El Molla, "The EU's Role in Political Reform and Democracy Building in the southern Mediterranean Region: An Egyptian Perspective," International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (Stockholm: 2009), p. 5, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2yaQB2O
  7. Daniela Huber, "Democracy Assistance in the Middle East and North Africa: A Comparison of US and EU Policies," Mediterranean Politics , vol. 13, no.1 (2008), p. 58, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2y5IDIy
  8. Miller et al, pp. 16 - 31.
  9. Curt Tarnoff & Marian Lawson, Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy , Congressional Research Service, 25/4/2018, pp. 5-6, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2BAXx5S
  10. Ibid., pp. 15 - 16.
  11. Marian L. Lawson & Susan B. Epstein, "Democracy Promotion: An Objective of U.S. Foreign Assistance," Congressional Research Service, 31/5/2017, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: http://bit.ly/2Mxnv1r
  12. Oz Hassan, American Democracy Promotion and the 'Arab Spring' , LSE Research Online (May 2012), p. 45, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit. ly/2JNXtb1
  13. مروان بشارة، "أهداف الولايات المتحدة وإستراتيجياتها في العالم العربي"، في: مجموعة مؤلفين، التداعيات الجيوستراتيجية للثورات العربية (الدوحة/ بيروت: المركز العربي للأبحاث ودراسة السياسات، 2014)، ص 112؛ Jeremy M. Sharp, U.S. Democracy Promotion Policy in the Middle East: The Islamist Dilemma , Congressional Research Service, 15/6/2006, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2JM4A3U الشكل (1) الإنفاق الأميركي على برامج نشر الديمقراطية حول العالم خلال الفترة 2018-2006 المصدر: Marian L. Lawson & Susan B. Epstein, Democracy Promotion: An Objective of U.S. Foreign Assistance , Congressional Research Service, 31/5/2017, pp. 14-15, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: http://bit.ly/2Mxnv1r
  14. بشارة، ص 125؛ Jeremy M. Sharp, Egypt: Background U.S. Relations , Congressional Research Service, 7/2/2011, p. 9, accessed on 16/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2y5Maq2
  15. Lawson & Epstein, p. 7.
  16. Samuel Tadros, The Follies of Democracy Promotion: The American Adventure in Egypt (Stanford: Hoover Institution, Stanford University, 2017), accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://hvr.co/2HMzAvs
  17. Lawson & Epstein, p. 1.
  18. Sharp, Egypt , 7/2/2011, p. 26.
  19. Anne Mariel Zimmermann, US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East: Aid for Allies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), p. 188.
  20. Jeremy M. Sharp, Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations , Congressional Research Service, 8/2/2018, p. 27, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2UmJvi5
  21. Ibid., p. 25. الشكل (2) حجم المساعدات العسكرية والاقتصادية الأميركية لمصر خلال الفترة 2009 - 2014 (مليون دولار أميركي) المصدر: United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt: U.S. Government Should Examine Options for Using Unobligated Funds and Evaluating Security Assistance Programs , February 2015, p. 15, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2FovRU7
  22. Zimmermann, p. 194.
  23. Sharp, Egypt , 8/2/2018, p. 26.
  24. Zimmermann, p. 196.
  25. Jeremy M. Sharp, "Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations," Congressional Research Service, 6/12/2012, pp. 8-10, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2t3ESNY; Tadros, p. 3.
  26. عزمي بشارة، ثورة مصر- الجزء الثاني: من الثورة إلى الانقلاب (الدوحة/ بيروت: المركز العربي للأبحاث ودراسة السياسات، 2016)، ص 449؛ Sharp, Egypt , 7/2/2011, p. 10; Tadros, p. 5.
  27. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Democracy Assistance: Lessons Learned from Egypt Should Inform Future U.S. Plans , 14/7/2014, p. 5, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2FoCZQy
  28. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt: U.S. Government Should Examine Options for Using Unobligated Funds and Evaluating Security Assistance Programs, February 2015, pp. 17-18, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2FovRU7
  29. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Enterprise Funds: Egypt and Tunisia Funds Are Established; Additions Steps Would Strengthen Compliance with USAID Grant Agreements and Other Requirements (February 2015), pp. 1-4, accessed on 28/8/2018, at: https:// bit.ly/2t3QKzt
  30. Sharp, Egypt , 8/2/2018, p. 29.
  31. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt , pp. 19 - 20.
  32. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt , p. 21.
  33. Deniel Benaim, Mohktar Awad & Brian Katulis, Setting the Terms for U.S. – Egypt Relations , Center for American Progress, February 2107, p. 2, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://ampr.gs/2LL7lQl
  34. Zimmermann, p. 222.
  35. Tadros; Hassan, p. 49.
  36. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Security Assistance: U.S. Government should Strengthen End-use Monitoring and Human Rights Vetting for Egypt , April 2016, p. 47, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2JF1Ema
  37. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt , p. 44.
  38. Ibid. الشكل (3) حجم الإنفاق الأميركي على برامج نشر الديمقراطية في مصر (مليون دولار) وعدد المنح المقدمة خلال الفترة 2009 - 2013 المصدر: United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Democracy Assistance: Lessons Learned from Egypt Should Inform future U.S. Plans , July 2014, p. 1, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2FoCZQy Jeremy M. Sharp, Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations , Congressional Research Service, 7/2/2011, p. 29, accessed on 15/1/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2y5Maq2
  39. Sharp, Egypt , 6/12/2012, p. 10.
  40. Kristina Kausch, Assessing Democracy Assistance: Egypt , FRIDE (May 2010), p. 4, accessed on 2019/1/15, at: http://bit.ly/2ThPLaG
  41. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Egypt , p. 15; Sharp, U.S. Democracy Promotion Policy , p. 25.
  42. Sharp, Egypt , 7/2/2011, p. 10.
  43. بشارة، ص 462 -.463
  44. United States Government Accountability office (GAO), Democracy Assistance , p. 12.
  45. Sharp, U.S. Democracy Promotion Policy , p. 9; Kausch, p. 16.
  46. Sharp, U.S. Democracy Promotion Policy , p. 23-24; Kausch, pp. 14 - 19.
  47. Ibid., p. 9 - 13.

Published

2019-01-01

Usage statistics

43 views 51 downloads